What was built in Rome. Architecture of ancient Rome and ancient monuments of the eternal city

The chapter “Building materials, construction equipment, structures” of the subsection “Architecture of the Roman Republic” of the section “Architecture of Ancient Rome” from the book “The General History of Architecture. Volume II. Architecture of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome)”, edited by B.P. Mikhailov.

Stone was the main building material in a mountainous country rich in its various varieties and volcanic rocks. The most convenient for processing were varieties of soft tuff - gray, yellowish or brownish in color. Hard limestone, travertine, was highly valued and was used extremely sparingly during almost the entire period of the republic. It was used by architects only in places of the greatest load of the building in the corner parts and in those details where porous tuff, which was easily weathered, was inappropriate. Outside, stone buildings were often covered with a light layer of knocking. Mostly cult and public buildings and engineering structures were erected from stone. Dwellings were built of raw brick. From the end of the 2nd century burnt bricks of various shapes came into use. Shafts of columns were laid out from shaped round or pentagonal bricks (Fig. 1). By the end of the 1st century BC. hollow brick blocks were used in the walls of the thermae for the installation of a heating system in which hot air circulated (Fig. 2).

At the end of the period of the republic, white marble, both local and imported from Greece, began to be used for the decoration of temples, public buildings and rich dwellings.

In the art of building and stone processing, the Etruscans had a certain influence on the Romans. The remains of ancient Roman buildings are made of large stones of irregular shape. In addition to polygonal masonry, square masonry was also mastered early. For the period V-III centuries. BC e. The Romans improved their construction technique by developing the so-called "normal" masonry of blocks in the shape of a parallelepiped of different sizes (on average 60X60X120 cm). Several methods of this masonry were used: from the same spoon rows of blocks; from spoons with rare pokes; from alternating rows of spoons and pokes, as well as observing the rhythmic alternation in each row of pokes and spoons (Fig. 3).

By the 3rd century BC. under the influence of the Greeks, the processing of the outer side of the blocks improved and various methods of rustication were developed. To lift and move heavy stone blocks at construction sites, simple cranes were used (Fig. 4).

In addition to the post-beam system, a false arch and a false vault were used in the structures. By the end of the III century. BC. is the appearance of Roman concrete, which opened up great opportunities in construction.

The development of Roman concrete began with the use of lime mortar in rubble masonry. A similar building technique was widespread in Hellenistic times. The difference between Roman concrete and conventional lime mortars is that instead of sand, it used pozzolans - volcanic sands named after the place of extraction (the city of Pozzuoli - the ancient Puteoli). The use of pozzolan instead of sand in mortar was due to the lack of good grades of sand in this part of Italy. Pozzolans proved to be the best astringent in the mortar, as they made it water-tight, strong, and set quickly. Initially, concrete was only used to fill the space between the hewn stone walls. The dimensions of the stones laid in concrete gradually decreased, the mixture became more and more homogeneous, and the concrete thus turned into an independent building material, although the facing of the outer surfaces with stone was preserved. Initially, the wall surface consisted of small irregularly shaped stones connected to the core of the wall and to each other with concrete mortar. This is the so-called irregular facing - incert (opus incertum). Gradually, there appears (from the 90s of the 1st century BC) a tendency to give the stones more and more regular shape, and, finally, from the middle of the 1st century. BC. reticulat is used - mesh masonry (opus reticulatum), in which the outer surface of the concrete wall is lined with small, carefully laid pyramidal stones. Their flat bases go out and form a mesh pattern, and the pointed ends are immersed in the concrete core of the wall (Fig. 5). The corners of the walls and the lintels of the openings were formed by masonry of large blocks. Samples of early concrete technology have come down to us in a small number. This is due to the fact that initially concrete was used mainly not in monumental buildings, but in dwellings and small structures, for which a quickly obtained and inexpensive wall material was needed. The concrete technique also had the advantage that it required a much smaller number of skilled building workers and allowed extensive use of slave labor.

In parallel, there was a development of arched-vaulted structures, which were used in the architecture of the ancient East, sometimes found in Greece (Priene, Pergamum, etc.). The question of whether arched-vaulted structures were introduced into the architecture of Rome from outside or independently invented by Roman architects cannot currently be considered definitively resolved.

The first appearance of the wedge arch in Rome dates back to the 4th century. BC. In the III-II centuries. BC. the number of arched-vaulted structures increases, especially since the end of the 2nd century. BC.

The combination of concrete technology and arched-vaulted structures, which provided unprecedented opportunities, had a huge impact on the development of Roman architecture. Only with the help of such construction techniques could such outstanding architectural structures as the Roman aqueducts, the Colosseum and the Pantheon be created.

The first of the monumental structures that have come down to us in this new type of technology is the portico of the Aemilia, which was a huge warehouse of grain in Emporia (the port of Rome down the Tiber). Large trade operations took place here. Initially, the Emporium was a simple unloading area, and the portico of the Aemilia was a temporary structure. In 174 BC a portico building was built (Fig. 6). It was a large rectangular building, elongated along the embankment (487X60 m), divided inside into 50 short transverse naves by 49 rows of pillars. The building rose in steps from the banks of the Tiber, and each nave was covered with a stepped cylindrical vault with a span of 8.3 m. On the facade of hewn tuff, each nave corresponded to a section separated from neighboring pilasters. Each nave is expressed on the facade: at the bottom with a large arched span, at the top with two smaller windows, also with a semicircular completion. The walls of the building are made of gray concrete of very good quality, their surface is lined with incert; The corners of the building and the wedge-shaped arches above the door and window openings were made from rectangular blocks of the same material. The portico of Aemilia was an outstanding monument of the early Roman building art.

Here, for the first time in a building of such a grandiose scale, the merging of the vaulted-arched principle of construction with concrete technology has been achieved. Such a developed design probably points to a long previous evolution.

The purpose of the building corresponded to the simplicity of its forms. The repetition of one standard element on the facade 50 times gave the building scale and emphasized the utility of its purpose.

Such huge constructions were carried out in an exceptionally short time. The grandiose Colosseum was built in five years, and aqueducts 100 or more kilometers long, along with substructures and bridges, “at the places where they crossed river valleys, the Romans managed to build in two or three years (the term of authority of the aedile - the head of construction, elected by the Senate). Construction was usually bid and carried out by contractors who were interested in the best organization of the whole, skillfully combining the labor of a huge mass of unskilled slaves and a small number of experienced architect-builders. Therefore, when designing, the typification of the main structural elements, the multiplicity of their dimensions per foot and modularity were widely used, which made it possible to divide the work into identical simple operations. The organization of labor at Roman construction sites was very high.

It is generally accepted that the primitive buildings of Rome came from the Etruscan people, perhaps even built by them. It was logically a continuation of the line of Greek architecture. The buildings of the Roman Empire retained the basis of Etruscan architecture - the circular arch. A circular arch is a rounded stone covering that connected the abutments to each other. This helped to arrange the stones in a radius circle for even pressure on them. Using new techniques for building structures, the Romans could bring creativity to new buildings. Theoretical new knowledge helped to build temples of large sizes, the ability to erect multi-storey buildings and buildings. In terms of the introduction of groin vaults and box vaults, the Romans succeeded over the Greeks and made more refined buildings.

In order for the arches to stand securely, the columns that used to be popular were no longer used. Roman architects began to build huge walls and pilasters, and the columns became just a decorative decoration. This was used almost everywhere, but there were also buildings in which the use of columns was more appropriate. At the same time, the styles of the columns practically did not change, the Romans settled on the standard Greek version.

In general, Roman architecture was directly dependent on the Greek directions of architecture. However, the Romans tried more to emphasize their strength and independence in order to intimidate and suppress foreign peoples. They did not spare money for decorating their buildings, each building was magnificent and richly decorated. At the same time, from the point of view of the architect, they tried to make each structure exemplary. Mostly buildings were built for practical needs, but temples also occupied an important place among the structures.

History of architecture of ancient Rome

As an independent branch of world art, the architecture of Ancient Rome was formed for a very long time, approximately in the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. Despite the fact that many buildings of those times have already crumbled, they regularly continue to fascinate with their remnants and individual elements. The Roman Empire was one of the great, if not the greatest, that laid the foundation for a new era. Public places of that time could accommodate tens of thousands of people (basilicas, amphitheaters, trade markets), while there was always something to strive for. Religion also did not recede into the background; the list of building structures in Rome included temples, altars, and tombs.

Comparing with the whole world, even historians came to the conclusion that it was difficult or simply impossible to find equal rivals to the architecture of Rome and Roman engineering. Aqueducts, bridges, roads, fortresses, canals as architectural objects are only a small part of the list of what they used on all fronts. They changed the principles of ancient Greek architecture, primarily the order system: they combined the order with an arched structure.

Great importance in the formation of Roman culture was given to the style of the Hellenes, who were supporters of architecture with a huge scope and the development of urban centers. But humanism and the ability to inherit the harmonious Greek style in Rome were omitted, preferring the exaltation of imperious emperors. They sharply emphasized the power of the army. Hence all the pathos, which was the basis of many decorations of buildings and structures.

The variety of buildings and the general scope of buildings in Rome is much higher than in Greece. The construction of huge buildings became possible due to a change in the technical foundations in construction. This is how new brick-concrete structures appear. They made it possible to block large spans, speeding up the process of construction work. It was also important that with the use of such construction methods, professional craftsmen were increasingly abandoned, and they were trusted to slaves and unskilled workers. This significantly reduced the cost of construction.

Stages of development of Roman architecture

І period

The stages of development of Roman architecture can be divided into 4 periods. The first and shortest starts from the time of the founding of ancient Rome and ends in the 2nd century BC. BC e. This period is not rich in architectural monuments, and those that appeared were the legacy of the Etruscans. Almost everything that was built during this period was publicly available. It brought collective benefits to the settlements. This category included canals for cleansing the city from sewage, which, with the help of them, fell into the Tiber. Mamertine prison and the first basilicas can also be attributed to buildings that were useful.

II period

The second stage is called "Greek". From the middle of the II century, a serious influence of Greek architecture on Roman begins. A strong influence was manifested until the end of the republican rule (31 BC). It is believed that at this time the first marble temples began to appear, replacing the usual types of stones and travertine. In their design, they were very similar to the Greek ones, but the architects tried to make noticeable differences.

Roman temples throughout these years looked oblong with 4 corners. The foundation was usually high, with an attached staircase on the front side. Climbing the stairs, you find yourself next to the columns. Going down a little deeper, there is a door that leads to the main hall. The main lighting comes through this door, so it is often open.

Together with such temples of the ancient Greek type, the Romans erected, in honor of the Gods, temples of a round shape. These were mostly their own ideas with the use of Greek elements. One of these can be considered the Temple of the Portun, surrounded by 20 columns, this historical object has survived to this day. The cone-shaped marble roof is a good example of the Roman individual style.

The community of buildings included not only buildings associated with religion, but also many others:

• Tabularium - a huge building designed to preserve the archives;
• The wooden theater of Skavra is one of the most interesting buildings of this period. Includes over three hundred marble columns and bronze statues, could accommodate 80,000 visitors;
• The first stone theater was built in honor of the goddess Venus.

All history about them disappeared with them. However, it is worth noting that using modern 3D modeling technologies, it was proved that these structures were built very competently. For example, the "Stone Theatre" was located in such a way that the stage looked to the northeast. Since, under Augustus, performances and celebrations were traditionally held in the morning, all the sun's rays fell on the stage, and not on theatergoers.

III period

By significance, the most effective period in the history of Roman architecture. The beginning is considered from the time of the arrival of Augustus to the republican throne and ends in 138 AD. e.

In the technologies of the Romans, the active use of concrete begins. A new stage in the construction of basilicas, circuses, and libraries begins. There were trials, identifying the best chariot riders. A new type of monumental art, the triumphal arch, is gaining popularity. At the same time, the technique was constantly improved with the help of new constructions timed to coincide with the new victories of the future empire.

Roman art was not as elegant as Greek structures, but the technical skill of construction remained at the highest level for centuries. The Colosseum (the largest amphitheater of antiquity) and the Pantheon temple (built in the name of the Gods) become world famous.

The introduction of features of Greek architecture gained massive popularity and continued to stride into the western and northern regions of Europe. Most Greek architects became famous with the help of the Romans, who commissioned Greek copies that were better preserved than the originals. The Romans, unlike the Greeks, adhered to their concept of sculptural traditions. They made busts of their ancestors to show the prototypes of their kind. The Greeks, on the other hand, used such sculptures as works of art in the house. This simplicity and vivid individuality of Roman portrait art show it from a new side for us.

Over the course of this period, all architectural structures go through stages of development, improvement and increase the level of majesty. Elements of luxury are widely used and for the first time the features of oriental art begin to slip.

IV period

After the departure from the power of Hadrian, Roman architectural art quickly begins its decline. All those decorations that were previously used begin to seem redundant and out of place, and their use is less and less correct. This period continues until the full formation of Christianity and the departure of paganism far into the background. The period of decline is characterized by the fact that every ruler wants to go down in history with the help of majestic buildings.

This period also continues to be distinguished by oriental elements, which are more and more clearly traced in architectural art. They begin to prevail over the classics of the genre. Particularly eloquent evidence of this is the construction under the last rulers of the empire in such remote areas of possessions as Syria and Arabia. This was noticeable by the change in the swelling of the surface of the roofs, the abundance of unnecessary accessories. Often mysterious, fantastic forms were erected, which were considered symbols of the eastern direction of architecture.

The greatness of Rome in the Temples

One of the first buildings erected by Augustus, dedicated to the deified idol Julius Caesar. Built in 29 BC. The temple was built in the modest style of the Ionic order. The place of Caesar's cremation was concentrated separately. In the decorated hall there are designated seats for speakers, which replaced the tribunal that existed here, concentrated for many years in the western part.

Altar of Peace

The monumental building of ancient Rome, which inscribed in history the victory of Augustus over the Spaniards and Gauls. It was built in 13 BC. e. In appearance, it looked like a fence with right angles 6 m high, in the center of which there was a step with an altar. There were 2 through passages along the perimeter of the fence, with the help of which it was possible to approach the altar. On the opposite walls were depicted processions of Augustus to offer sacrifice to the altar.

The memo had in its personification particles of all the cultures of the predecessors of Roman architecture. By the type of construction, one can judge the Italian style, and by the location of the ornament along the bottoms and tops, Etruscan principles. The exquisite craftsmanship of the relief of the altar speaks of a strong Greek influence.

Temple of Mars Ultor

One of the largest temples in Rome. The width of the facade alone is about 35 m. The columns are erected up to 18 m. The interior decoration was mainly of marble with wooden ceilings. Having a solemn appearance inside, the temple evoked a feeling of delight of the people present in it. The date of creation of this historical monument is considered 2 BC. e. Greek elements are traced in almost all stages of architecture.

Pantheon

The Pantheon is a special place in Rome. The second name is "Temple of all gods". The mass of temples of ancient times was built by order of the emperors, including the Pantheon was no exception. The Pantheon was dedicated primarily to the two gods Venus and Mars, it was they who were considered the guardians of the Julius family. The building consisted of three parts, which were intertwined. It was named after the architect who performed the work, but it is believed that the Pantheon was his pseudonym. The Pantheon was built in 118-128, years later it was restored several times. To date, only a small part of it has remained, which does not allow you to enjoy the full majesty of the temple of that period.

Sculpture of Ancient Rome

The monumental art of the ancient Romans significantly lost to the Greeks. The Romans never managed to create the greatest sculptural monuments and compete with the Greeks on these frontiers. But it was still possible to enrich the plastic with its elements.

The best results were achieved in portrait art. The Roman people transferred their observation of every trait of a person and his unique individuality. Ideal portraits were created, as well as portraits in which one could see the human negative and the realism of the art form. With the help of sculptures, for the first time, they launched the propaganda of the civilization of society. They erected monuments to famous personalities, made constructions of triumph.

The architecture of Ancient Rome is based on two great civilizations - Greek and Etruscan. The Etruscans had excellent technologies for the construction of temples, houses, tombs. It was they who introduced the arch and vault. But, unlike the Greek ones, the Etruscan temples were built from short-lived materials, so little has survived to this day.

Etruscan arch in Perugia, Italy

However, there are objects by studying which you can get a lot of information about this culture. It is known that the supporting structure of the buildings was made of wood, bricks and terracotta coverings were used.

The Etruscan arch in Perugia is an intact example of a city gate.

Architecture of Ancient Rome: periods

Real Roman architecture, with original features that recycle Etruscan and Greek influences, is defined from the 2nd century BC.

Architecture of the Roman Monarchy

It is believed that Rome was founded in 753 BC. At the beginning of its history, Rome was a monarchy. According to tradition, after the reign of Romulus, King Numa Pompilius ascended the throne, who improved the organization of the city. He was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, an experienced Latin warrior who conquered the nearby cities. The fourth king was Anko Marzio, who built the port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber.

The Etruscan rulers followed - Tarquinius Priscus ordered the market square, Foro, to be covered with stone, built numerous temples and ordered to dig the sewers of Cloaca Maximus to dump dirty water. Servius Tullius built a wall around the city.

The monarchy ended with the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, who was expelled from the city in 509 BC, and Rome became a republic.

Architecture of the Roman Republic

During the Republic, which lasted almost five centuries, Rome was always at war. After the conquest of the Etruscans and other peoples living in the territory of today's Italy, the Roman Republic conquered the territories of Greece and other countries of the Mediterranean Sea. Construction was underway. To move the army, good roads were needed, a lot of them were built. road (lat. strata) was formed from several layers (ital. strato) and its surface was covered with stone slabs.

The architecture of the period of the Roman Republic pays great attention practical and functional aspects buildings.

Architecture of the Roman Empire

After the Roman Republic was replaced by the Roman Empire in 31 BC, there was a long period of prosperity for art and architecture. Under Emperor Augustus, then under Troyan and Hadrian, the architecture of the Roman Empire reached its magnificence and played an important role in propagating power.

Extensive evidence has been preserved relating to architecture, where the Romans demonstrate excellent skills in construction techniques, sculpture (portraits, reliefs that complement architecture), painting (frescoes, mosaics).

Christian era architecture

The period of barbarian invasions marks the decline of Roman architecture. A new era is coming - the Christian one.

Main characteristics of Roman architecture

Centinate. Wooden structure to support the vaults

1. In Roman architecture, of course, there is a great continuity with Greek art- symmetry, regularity of forms, the use of architectural orders (Doric, Tuscan, Ionic and Corinthian). In fact, instead of the Doric order, the Romans used the Tuscan order ( tuscanico/toscano), which is very similar to it, the only difference was that the column was smooth, without grooves ( flute).
2. From the Etruscans the Romans adopted arches and vaults, becoming the chief specialists in their use. During the construction of the arch and vaults, a temporary wooden structure was used for support - centinature ( centinatura). From a large number of arches standing one behind the other, the Romans formed a cylindrical vault ( volta a botte), and the intersection of two barrel vaults formed a groin vault ( volta a crociera). The first builders of real domes were also the Romans. One of the most beautiful domed vaults is the Pantheon.

Dome vaults in the architecture of ancient Rome

Materials and technologies

The Romans used bricks to build walls, arches, columns, floors. Marble, as an expensive material, was used much less frequently. A variety of brick shapes - elongated, square, triangular, pyramidal - helped to create strong structures and grips.

The production of bricks was also expensive, and a lot of labor was required for masonry.

That is why they were often replaced with blocks of tufa and travertine, or other materials. To speed up the construction of the walls, the Romans began to use artificial conglomerate or Roman concrete ( calcestruzzo).

Concrete was poured into wooden formwork, compacted with a rammer and, after it hardened, the formwork was removed. This method of building walls was called opus caementicium.

When the same technology was used to fill the cavities of two load-bearing walls made of brick or stone, it was called muratura a sacco. Thus, the Romans got thick, strong walls, saving time and resources. The technique was not reflected in the aesthetics, because. the concrete part was inside.

Architecture of Ancient Rome: building walls

External masonry walls can be characterized by the main building traditions −

• opus quadratum,
• opus reticulatum,
• opus incertum,
• opus latericium.

Opus quadratum

When working with such material as soft tuff, large stones in the form of a parallelepiped were cut and arranged in rows of the same height. (opus quadratum); if hard limestone was used, such as traventino, each element took on its own polygonal shape (opus poligonalis).

Opus reticulatum

With this technique, cement was poured between walls formed by small pyramidal stone blocks, the bases of which formed a regular diamond-shaped grid.

Ancient Roman stonework: opus quadratum and opus reticulatum

Opus incertum

IN opus incertum the stones are irregularly shaped and their arrangement seems almost random.

Opus latericium

Fired bricks of a rectangular shape (about 45 cm x 30 cm) were superimposed in an alternating order. Since the era of August, its use has become more frequent. Due to the fact that over time the thickness of the bricks and their color changed, it is easy to establish the chronological order of architectural structures.

Opus mixtum

Although brick was usually used uniformly (opus testaceum), there are examples of its use with other stones and rows of other masonry, creating an opus mixtum.

Stonework of Ancient Rome: opus latericium, opus inchertum, opus mixtum

Architecture and urban planning (urban planning)

Here are two different examples -

1. the city of Rome itself, which is unique in its development,
2. and building new cities.

The layout of most ancient Roman cities was rectangular, based on the principle of temporary camps of legionnaires - castrum.

City planning of ancient Rome

Namely, settlements were broken up and built up along two main streets - cardo (oriented from north to south) and Decumanus (from east to west). The intersection of these streets was assigned to the main square of the city - Foro.

Reconstruction of the layout of the city of Rimini

Roads, water pipes, sewerage, bridges were built in cities. Various buildings were built:

• houses for living (Domus, Insulae and Villas);
• for recreation (theaters, amphitheaters, circuses and baths);
• designed to worship the gods (temples);
• for political and administrative activities (Curia and Basilica)
• and festive monuments (triumphal arches and columns).

Brief video review-reconstruction of the architecture of Ancient Rome:

temples

In ancient Rome, architecture was the leading art. Unlike Greece, where the temple was the main thing, in Roman architecture the main place was occupied by structures that embodied the ideas of the power of the Roman state, and later the emperor: forums, triumphal arches, amphitheaters. The Roman theater, unlike the Greek one, is a separate building, for the first time a stage is being built in it. One of the pinnacles of Roman architecture is the amphitheater Colosseum, which accommodated 50,000 spectators, it was intended for gladiator fights.

Yet the Romans built temples out of respect for the gods. In the cella of the Roman temple, as in the Greek temple, there was a statue of the god. The Romans preferred the more elegant Ionic and Corinthian orders, as well as the composite order, which combines elements of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, to the strict Doric style. Along the facades, except for the main one, there were no free-standing columns - the walls were smooth or decorated with semi-columns and pilasters (a pilaster is a flat vertical rectangular ledge on a wall or pillar, repeating all parts and proportions of an order column, but, unlike it, usually devoid of entasis).

Some small Roman temples, such as the Maison Carré at Nîmes, are excellently preserved due to their solid barrel-vaulted construction. The interior of such small temples was extremely simple: a room with smooth walls and a coffered ceiling, in the center stood a statue of the god to whom the temple was dedicated.

The interiors of large temples, now in ruins, are much more complex. So, for example, in the temple of Venus and Roma in Rome (135 AD) there were two halls; along the side walls there were rows of columns, between which there were decorative niches; in each hall there was an apse covered with a semi-dome, in all likelihood, statues of the gods were placed in it.

The most famous Roman temple is the grandiose and, fortunately, perfectly preserved temple of all the gods. Pantheon(c. 118-128 AD) This is a 43.5 m diameter rotunda topped with a dome. The portico with a pediment is supported by eight columns of the Corinthian order. Two additional rows of columns, four columns each, flank a magnificent bronze portal (not only original doors, but even door hinges have been preserved). The walls, 6.3 m thick, are dissected by deep niches with Corinthian columns, where statues of the gods once stood. The total height of the temple is equal to its diameter, while the height of the lower part of the chi-lindron corresponds to the height of the dome. Inside the temple, the walls are divided into two tiers - the lower one with Corinthian columns and pilasters, and the upper one with false windows. There are five rows of caissons on the dome, decreasing towards the center of the dome. The only light source is a round window in the center of the dome (oculus). The dome is made of concrete, its thickness at the oculus is 1.5 m, it increases towards the base. This is necessary for the correct distribution of gravity and thrust. The walls are made of brick and concrete, inside and outside are lined with stone. The grandiose space under the dome, the richness of the interior decoration, the bewitching play of the sun's rays - penetrating through the round window, they are reflected from the shiny surface of the marble floor - and the unusual acoustic effect make the Pantheon one of the most interesting monuments of ancient architecture.

As the Roman Empire expanded, Roman buildings became more complex and intricate. Roman places of worship, such as the temples at Baalbek, Lebanon, and Pergamon, Turkey, featured elaborate and ornate interiors. So, inside the temple of Venus in Baalbek is another temple of a smaller size.

Secular buildings

The Roman basilica is the main type in the civil architecture of Rome, which had a huge impact on the architecture of subsequent eras. Court sessions were held in the basilica, the participants of which gathered in the central nave (the nave is an elongated room, part of the interior, limited on one or both longitudinal sides by a row of columns or pillars, so called because of its resemblance to the hull of a ship); the judge sat on a dais in the apse at the end of the building. The side naves, separated by an arcade, communicated with the central nave. The side naves had a height less than the height of the central nave, which made it possible to make huge windows. The stone walls of the basilica supported a wooden roof.

As you know, the Romans inherited a lot from the Greeks. However, the love of luxury has become a defining dominant in their interiors. It was the Romans who developed the system of types of residential buildings that we still use today. This is a city palace, or simply a house (domus), then - a multi-apartment and multi-storey city residential building, which had the name "insula", and, finally, a country villa. All those original interiors that we can see today thanks to excavations in Pompeii demonstrate one type of Roman dwelling - "domus". Their luxury seems incredible even by today's standards. The Pompeii mentioned above became a storehouse of knowledge about the life of ancient culture.

Volcanic ash formed during the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. e., kept the city intact for many centuries. There were many more magnificent, well-maintained houses here than, for example, in the cities of the Middle Ages and even the Renaissance. The streets are decorated with fountains and other skillfully designed reservoirs with springs: water poured either from the gaping mouth of an animal, or, for example, from an overturned vessel with a rooster sitting on it.

The houses are mostly one-story, rarely two-story and resemble small fortresses, as they face the street with deaf, windowless walls. Through the entrance portico, the visitor entered a short corridor leading directly to the atrium - the main room in the house. At the entrance to it there were home altars with images of gods and masks of ancestors. The atrium was illuminated through a hole in the roof, into which rainwater flowed, filling a shallow impluvium (pool) in the center of the room. Four columns stood at the corners of the pool, supporting the roof. The family gathered in the atrium, guests were received here. Small cubicles (bedrooms) also came out here. Directly behind the atrium was a room called the tablinum. Over time, from a niche intended for a matrimonial bed, it evolved into the front office of the owner. The tablinum contained a library of papyri and manuscripts, as well as the family's archives. On the sides of the tablinum were triclinums (tables).

In rich houses there was also a peristyle - a courtyard with an internal colonnade, where they arranged gardens with ponds and statues. Moreover, summer triclinums, extending into the peristyle, and winter triclinums, communicating with the owner's office (tablinum), differed. Peristyle, as in Greek houses, was the pride of the owners, a place of comfort and silence. It was decorated with sculpture (busts, statues, herms with portraits of philosophers), fountains, flower beds, mosaics on walls or floors.

Like the Greeks, the Romans were popular with wall paintings that created the illusion of expanding the interior space for cramped rooms. The technology of Roman wall painting was quite complex and busy. It is assumed that after applying a multi-layer primer, which contained marble crushed into powder, the painting was done using a combination of pigments prepared on wax and egg. Then there was polishing with wool, after which Punic wax melted with vegetable oil was applied with a silk brush. Following this, hot ink-nut coals were brought to the walls and the surface was again smoothed and polished with a clean cloth.

In the Roman atrium there was a hearth dedicated to the goddess Vesta, the guardian of the house. Busts of ancestors were often placed in niches - for demonstration to guests who were received here, in the atrium. Rich houses could have several atriums and several peristyles. There were also baths in the house with pools of hot (caldarium) and cold (frigidarium) water. There was a central heating system, which was carried out for a fee to the city treasury, and, of course, the famous Roman plumbing.

While the Mediterranean climate hardly required additional heating other than charcoal braziers, the inhabitants of the areas north of Rome needed protection from the winter cold. Further north, where Hadrian's Wall, which was considered the border of the Roman Empire, in Britain, the Romans built houses (villas) that give us the opportunity to study the then existing heating system. The stone floor was raised above the ground to a small height with the help of supports made of bricks or stones. Under the floor was a chimney connected to the hearth. When a fire was lit in the hearth, the smoke escaped through the cellar, simultaneously heating the house; the same system was used to heat the Roman baths. The floor was heated to medium temperature. However, the Romans covered the walls of their houses not only with paintings. They were faced with marble, sometimes with granite. In the 1st century n. e. especially popular was this type of decor, like a mosaic. She could decorate the floor, the ceiling, and even the columns.

The decoration of the front rooms was complemented by glass and bronze items. Bronze tripods and censers; candelabra in the form of a sprawling tree, a human figure or fantastic creatures; door handles-rings with a relief image of Medusa the Gorgon, averting evil; vessels for boiling water (samovars) on three legs in the form of birds, sphinxes and animal paws were an integral part of everyday life. Outbuildings adjoined the main part of the patrician's house, located along an open rectangle or semicircle. The Romans improved the architecture of residential buildings. The Italian type of house had a courtyard surrounded by a colonnade, decorated with a fountain, statues, flower beds with fountains, pavilions, grottoes and a large pond. The villas were distinguished by their luxurious decoration, the use of marble and precious woods. The walls were decorated with complex paintings imitating columns - the so-called architectural style. At that time, the laws of perspective were already known, so there are many “tricks” in the wall paintings (framed paintings, illusory architecture, objects that seem real).

The culture of the conquered peoples also influences the Roman ornamentation. In addition to the traditional symmetrical combinations of flowers and leaves, symbolic figurines of eagles, lions, and sphinxes are used.

Furniture

The furniture was created according to Greek patterns, but with more lush ornaments. It was made of the finest woods with inserts of ivory or metal. Chairs and armchairs symbolized social status, and were not just utilitarian items.

The ancient Romans, in addition to furniture made of wood, bronze and marble, also made furniture woven from wicker rods. The general forms of ancient Roman furniture are graceful and refined, but suffer from an excess of decoration. Chairs, for example, were made with armrests in the form of griffins, sphinxes, lions. The legs were shaped like lion paws with wings ending at the top with the head of an animal. Wooden furniture was decorated with carvings, gilding, inlaid with gold and silver. There was also decorative, fixed furniture, made of white or colored marble with mosaic boards on tables.

Three beds were usually placed around the dining table. The men reclined on them (“Greek”), and the women sat on chairs. Heavy rectangular tables for meals were wooden: either on one support - in the form of a column, or on three - in the form of animal paws. In the atrium there were marble tables, decorated with carvings, on which dishes for guests were stored (silver dinner sets, bowls, goblets). At the quadrangular table, beds were placed on three sides, the fourth remained free for serving food. Three people were placed on each such bed. A table with three boxes around was called a triclinium; the room in which they had dinner also began to be called. When, at the end of the republic, round tables began to come into fashion, the boxes began to be made in a semicircular shape, and they received the name “sigma”. Round tables were fixed on three legs made in the form of animal paws, sometimes elegantly curved and richly decorated. Instead of separate legs, rectangular tables had solid sides with strong relief carvings, which depicted double figures of griffins, lions, eagles, etc. The table board was sometimes made smooth, sometimes decorated with mosaics or stone inlay. Chairs with backs were called catedra, and the chair of the householder, like the imperial throne, was called solium. It was made with armrests, had high legs, its richly decorated back reached the shoulders of the person sitting, but sometimes it was made much higher. This chair usually stood on a low pedestal. The ancient Romans often replaced straight legs at tables, chairs and benches with a richly and exquisitely finished board. Often the legs were shaped like lion paws with wings ending at the top with the head of an animal. The armrests of the chairs depicted griffins, sphinx owls, lions, etc. Things were kept in chests.

Beds in ancient Rome were very similar to Greek beds. The bed frame was mostly made of wood with tortoise, ivory, stained glass inlays, as well as bronze details (lion heads, horses). Between the walls of the skeleton there was a lattice of bronze rods, on which a mattress was placed. The bed had turned legs of a rectangular or bent shape, or in the form of animal paws. A "carpet" of mosaic cubes stretched out near the bed. In the bedrooms there were small wooden or bronze tables on three legs - for lamps.

All ancient Roman furniture can be divided into two large groups:

• a) wooden furniture, decorated with carvings, gilding, inlaid wood of other colors, enamel, pieces of faience, gold and silver;
• b) decorative, fixed furniture, made of white or colored marble with mosaic boards on the tables.

In addition to these two types, bronze furniture existed. Among other bronze furnishings, numerous candelabra, lamps, tripods and other furnishings were found in these excavations. Applied art reached a high development in ancient Rome: carved and chased gold and silver bowls, vessels made of glass set in gold, beautiful fabrics decorated the interiors of houses in Rome. Mosaic glass pieces were a bright decorative accent in the house (the Romans used the technique of inlaying shapes with different colored pieces).

The ancient sights of Rome can be assessed today very ambiguously. An impressive arena in which no form of torture was considered too cruel. Places of worship where the gods were often worshiped through ritual sacrifices that shock us today. Pleasure palaces where sexual corruption was not only accepted but even encouraged. The state of Ancient Rome attracts the interest of many researchers and history buffs.

Who were the people who created such grandiose structures in Rome? What made them build ever greater monuments, and at what cost? What were the laws The answers to these questions are very interesting, although to this day we do not know everything. The ancient sights of Rome are really impressive. We will present you some of them.

Coliseum

Crowds of people were attracted to the arena by the bloody spectacle. Sometimes in the Roman Colosseum there were spectators up to 50 thousand people. All of them longed to see scenes of indescribable horror. To know, priests, senators, emperors, slaves, ordinary people had fun seeing the bloody scenes.

Gladiators fought each other wearing heavy armor. Often they beat the opponent to death. In the arena, wild hungry animals were set against each other, released to fight with a man. The goal pursued by the participants in these confrontations was to tear each other to shreds. Some features of Ancient Rome are incomprehensible to us today.

Filling the performance arena with water

Various types of special effects were used on stage. These included filling the arena with water to simulate naval battles. How did the ancient Romans manage to fill the Colosseum with water?

Everything is actually quite simple: a system of reservoirs was filled from the aqueducts. They were right above the arena, on the slope. These resourceful ancient Romans pumped water down from aqueducts and then through tanks to the center of the Colosseum. A more difficult question is how they managed to then pump out the water?

It is believed that the ancient Romans built a sewer system. However, researchers have yet to answer this question, since very little excavation has been carried out in the Colosseum until today. The ancient sights of Rome have not yet been sufficiently studied.

Bloody competition

The main Roman myths were part of the play. And the worse they were, the better. Christians and criminals were often placed in the most dangerous roles.

In the Roman Colosseum, bloody competitions have prevailed since its opening, which took place in 72 AD. The opening ceremony was hosted by Emperor Titus. It lasted 100 days. An unprecedented massacre occurred on the opening day: about 5,000 animals died.

Colosseum - gift of Vespasian

The Colosseum is a gift to the Romans from Titus' predecessor and father. Vespasian, the founder of the Flavian dynasty, began to rule in 69 AD. This time was a critical moment in the history of Rome. Hundreds of years had passed since the empire was founded by Augustus, and now its future was very uncertain.

Chaos reigned as the Four Emperors began to change in one year. After that, Vespasian, who ruled Syria, seized power.

A clever diplomat and hero, he easily gained the support of the Senate and was declared emperor. After that, having suppressed the rebellion on the Rhine and the Jewish rebellion in Jerusalem, he focused on domestic problems.

Vespasian over a ten-year reign saved the treasury from the deficit left by his predecessor Nero. He also began to build a lot of the most grandiose enterprise was the Colosseum. It was conceived as a symbol of the success and power of Vespasian.

Construction of the Colosseum

It took more than 10 years to complete the construction. The Colosseum was originally called the Flavius ​​Amphitheatre. Many laborers and slaves were used for its construction. Some of the builders were prisoners taken by Vespasian after winning the Jerusalem campaign.

Until now, the name of the architect who created the Colosseum is unknown. One of the most amazing features of this attraction is the highly sophisticated crowd control system. The amphitheater originally had 80 entrances. All of them led to certain sectors. Places were divided into tiers.

The fate of the Colosseum

The last games known from written sources were played in the 6th century AD. They completed this cruel competition, which amused the once bloodthirsty Romans. The Colosseum was not used for a long time after that. It was partially destroyed, like many other ancient sights of Rome. A terrible earthquake occurred in the 9th century, as a result, most of it was destroyed.

Later, the Colosseum began to be used as a quarry. Rich marble cladding was torn off, which began to be used in the construction of churches and palaces. Still intact is part of the four levels that originally existed. To this day, the Colosseum is a testament to both the cruelty of the ancient Romans and the skill of the people who built the sights of Ancient Rome. It attracts many tourists to Italy.

Pantheon

The temples of ancient Rome are impressive. The most famous of them is the Pantheon. In the 1930s, Benito Mussolini, the Italian dictator, conceived an original propaganda campaign. In particular, he drew parallels between the glory of the new regime and the greatness that the empire of ancient Rome possessed. This led to a lot of archaeological research and excavations throughout the state. Due to the flood of the Tiber, deposits of earth appeared on many monuments, which completely covered them. because of its proximity to the river was badly damaged. This structure was built approximately from 27 to 23 BC.

Architectural plan discovered by workers

The workers, having dug 6-7 meters into the ground, discovered the pavement, which was made of massive blocks. However, the Second World War soon began, and for some time this discovery was forgotten. Only 20 years later, in 1964, Roman experts began to study this place again. A full-size architectural plan was carved into the pavement. It is obvious that the yard served as a workshop for a construction site. The whole question is for what.

None of the existing monuments corresponded to the project. One of the experts in 1992 solved the riddle. It seems that these plans were made for the Pantheon. Many parts of the structure exactly matched, but not all.

First Pantheon

The Pantheon is a famous temple that was built in honor of the emperor, as well as to worship the gods of Rome. What we see now is not the first Pantheon. The temple was originally the idea of ​​Marcus Agrippa, a powerful Roman general. Construction began in 27 BC and was completed two years later. However, in 64 AD. a great fire destroyed the Pantheon.

Rebuilding the Pantheon

After this, in 118 AD, rebuilding began, which was led by He was an amateur architect who participated in many building projects in Rome.

The Pantheon was built after 10 years of work. Adrian dedicated the building to its first builder. That is why the name of Mark Agrippa is visible on the facade.

The Pantheon has a huge rotunda made of brick and stone, as well as a vault that forms a dome. The Pantheon is a square building, 43 meters high and wide. Its walls are 7.5 meters thick, and each of the bronze doors weighs 20 tons.

Where there are now paintings on biblical motifs, marble statues of the gods of Rome used to stand.

Baths of Caracalla

The sights of Ancient Rome also include the Baths of Caracalla. These ancient baths are similar to modern wellness centers. They are the largest and most ornate of all the public baths built in ancient Rome. Their construction was started by Septimius Severus in 206 AD. And the construction was completed in 216. Opened by the son of Septimius.

Therm decorations, their use

These buildings of ancient Rome were really richly decorated: walls lined with marble, mosaic floors, stucco ceilings.

The terms occupied a large and beautifully decorated area, which was used as a gym. Here men went in for sports: they threw a spear, a disk, boxed. Entry to the baths, even for slaves, was free. Initially, women and men washed together, but at the beginning of the 2nd century, Hadrian forbade this.

The invasion is ready, the destruction of the term

These buildings of ancient Rome continued to be used until 535 AD. At this time, the Goths invaded and broke the aqueduct. The same fate befell the Baths of Caracalla, like many other monuments of Ancient Rome. They were partially destroyed. The large sums required for their repair disappeared when the empire collapsed, the surrounding world familiar to the inhabitants disappeared. Ancient Rome was fading away.

In the Middle Ages, marble and bronze were torn off the walls, and the beautiful sculptures that adorned the baths ended up in the collections of Roman popes and the aristocracy.

Forum

Not much remains of the majestic Roman Forum. It was the center of life in Rome. The Forum appeared in the 4th century BC. In its place today, only fragments of some monuments, many overturned stones and a couple of vaults have survived. We note right away that the imperial forums adjoin the Roman Forum, which are not part of the Roman Forum, although they are similar to it both in purpose and in name.

Reconstruction of the Forum by Augustus

The construction of the forum was accidental. There was no systematic plan. Therefore, the forum lacked harmony. During the time of Augustus it was completely reconstructed. This emperor removed most of the structures, while paving and expanding the territory. Now what the forum looked like during the period of the republic is a mystery. Many buildings were wooden, so they were demolished or destroyed. August used only stone and cement for construction.

Vestals

The temples of ancient Rome in the forum include a temple dedicated to the Roman people. She was one of the most important and ancient goddesses. It was associated with the heart and also with fire. It was believed that this fire represented the spiritual power of the whole country. She was served by priestesses who made sure that the fire did not go out. They always had to remain virgins, otherwise they were expected to be executed. Vestals lived near the temple. They were chosen from aristocratic families aged 6 to 10 years. For 30 years they had to serve at the temple. At the end of their service, these women were thus at least 36 years old. To many they seemed too old to marry. Most of the Vestals remained priestesses until the end of their lives.

It far surpassed the samples created by the Greeks in grandeur, functionalism and scale. In part, the invention of good cement played an important role here. But no less important was the pride of the emperors, who over the centuries tried to surpass their predecessors, erecting more and more majestic, grandiose and richly decorated monuments.