Indigenous peoples of North America. Aleuts - cruel slave owners of the north A traditional occupation for the Eskimos and Aleuts

It turns out that our ideas about the northern peoples as peaceful people dancing to the sound of a tambourine are wrong. Until the 18th century, the Aleuts, for example, were very warlike and often raided other tribes to convert opponents into slavery.

The name of the people - Aleuts, was invented by the Russians during the Great Northern Expedition of 1741. Travelers could not accurately determine the roots of this people. According to one version, the Aleuts came from the northeast Asian coast, according to another, from Alaska. This happened approximately 6000 - 4600 years ago. In the middle of the 18th century there were 15 thousand of them, and they lived mainly on the Aleutian Islands. In 1799 Russian companies part of the Aleuts were resettled to the Commander Islands. In 1867 Aleutian Islands along with Alaska were sold to the United States. There are only 550 natives left in Russia today. A larger group lives in America. There are currently 17,000 of them there. From 1891 to 1917, the Commander Islands were rented by various commercial and industrial companies that bought furs, meat and fat from marine animals from the local population. In those days, the arsenal of hunters included a wide variety of weapons. Fishing began at the end of April with catching fish with nets. Mid-July is bird hunting season with shatin javelins and bola projectiles. A bola is a witty and simple tool, which is a bundle of belts with stone or bone weights at the ends. Having untwisted, the bolas were thrown into the flock, the bird became tangled in the belts and became easy prey. Birds were also hunted with large nets and nets. With the onset of winter, the hunt for the sea beaver began, which was hunted in the open sea with the help of a harpoon; walruses hunted on rookeries. A cunning trick was used to catch the seal: it was lured ashore by a decoy - an inflated seal skin, while imitating the cry of a female. The Aleuts even hunted the king of the sea - the whale. To do this, they used a spear with a poisoned tip. Under the influence of poison, the whale died in 2–3 days, and hunters picked up its carcass, thrown ashore by the waves. Until the 19th century, the Aleuts fled from the winter cold in semi-dugouts for 10-40 families, covered with dry grass, skins and turf. We climbed inside through a hole in the roof along a log with notches. Bunks were built along the walls, and the place of each family was separated by pillars with curtains. Utensils were stored under the bunks. In the summer they lived in light buildings. In the 19th century they had other winter dwellings, with walls and a roof made of poles and boards. The upper hatch began to be used for lighting, and they entered the room through exits in the walls. The semi-dark dwellings were illuminated with fat lamps. During the long winter, men were engaged in the manufacture of fishing tools, stone and wooden utensils, sitting at bowls hollowed out of stone, in which a moss wick was burning, floating in whale oil. Food was fried in the same bowls. If there were hot springs near the settlement, then the Aleuts cooked fish and meat in them. They also knew how to cook special dishes from raw fish. For the hungry winter, they prepared dried fish and whale oil, which was kept in bubbles from the stomachs of marine animals. Women were skilled craftswomen, sewing and embroidering clothes, weaving mats and baskets. Vegetable threads were so thin that they could compete with silk. However, the ornaments were not very diverse. Despite the small number, by the middle of the eighteenth century. the population of each island represented an independent community of relatives with their own dialect. The tribal group was headed by a toyon chief. This honorary position was hereditary and in rare births was elective. Toyon established trade relations, decided court cases, and was engaged in control over the lands of the clan - rookeries of animals. The old and the elderly were the keepers of the secrets and customs of the clan. They also practiced blood feuds. The powerless position in the Aleut society was occupied by the so-called rootless Aleuts - slaves and migrants. Usually they were prisoners of war. Sometimes the Aleuts enslaved even fellow tribesmen, for example, orphans. Severe punishments were widely used for any offense. For disobedience, escapes and theft - self-mutilation. If the slave really did not please the owner, then a terrible death awaited him - to be crushed by a board. The slave was the unit of exchange. Usually the cost was as follows: for a kayak you could get a husband and wife; for a stone knife - one slave. Some Aleuts had twenty or more slaves. Slaves participated in all household work, and if they showed skill, endurance and courage, they could become full members of society. Thus, among the Aleuts, the slave state was not considered eternal, and the children of a slave from a free man became free. This people also had interesting traditions of marriage. Unions between cousins, polyandry and polygamy were considered quite normal. It did not cause indignation in a woman if her husband was so hospitable that he offered her sexual services to a guest. In addition, a certain group of men were potential spouses of a group of women. If we talk about their beliefs, then shamanism and hunting magic were widespread among the Aleuts. Usually a shaman, dressed in a special costume resembling a bird, called the beast. The shaman also danced in a special way to protect the hunter in the field and provide him with rich prey. On the holiday of the winter solstice, the Aleuts gathered for a beautiful performance. It was accompanied by dances with pantomimes, dramatic performances of hunting scenes and mythological scenes accompanied by singing and beats of a tambourine. The performers wore special headdresses and wooden masks. From mouth to mouth, the Aleuts passed on legends about the original immortality of people, about the origin of people from a dog that fell from the sky, about the fight against cannibals, about blood feuds that led to cruel wars. At the end of the 18th century, the Aleuts were converted to Orthodoxy and many of their customs began to fade away, traditions were forgotten, and the people themselves began to die out and become impoverished. In the 19th century, this reached a critical point and it seemed that soon there would not be a single Aleut left in Russia. Since 1935, a slow increase in the population began, but national traditions were largely lost. In terms of lifestyle and social structure, the Russian Aleuts now do not differ from the visiting population, they speak only Russian. According to linguists, today only two dozen elderly people are native speakers of their native language. Since 1932, a specialized fur farm was created on the Commanders, where all adult male Aleuts and a significant part of the women fished, hunted and gathered. Part of the Aleuts became employees. In the 50s. a massive influx of newcomers to the islands began, which ousted the Aleuts from the most profitable sectors of the economy. At present, the majority of Aleuts work in public utilities as auxiliary workers, and only 10 people are engaged in traditional crafts. Also, the Aleuts live compactly in the village of Nikolsky, Kamchatka region. They make up a third of the thousandth population of the village. But even of these 300 people, more than half live in mixed families, as the number of interethnic marriages has increased. Nevertheless, the ethno-cultural center being created in the village at the expense of the federal budget is called upon to play an important role in preserving the culture of the Aleuts. As for the American Aleuts, like other national minorities in the United States, they have long been subjected to outright national discrimination. After the Aleuts, after the historical sale of Alaska, ended up on American territory, everything that only reminded of the cultural influence of the Russians, as well as of their own, began to be eradicated from their life. national traditions. The most interesting thing is that the introduced Russian customs began to be considered by the Aleuts as national. Since the middle of the 20th century, a movement began in the United States for the revival of the Aleutian culture, the Aleutian League emerged, which is part of the Federation of Alaska Native Peoples. Modern Aleuts of the United States are employed in fur seal trades, are employed in the fish canning industry, and their numbers began to grow. Faces of Russia. "Living Together, Being Different"

The multimedia project "Faces of Russia" exists since 2006, talking about Russian civilization, the most important feature which is the ability to live together, remaining different - such a motto is especially relevant for the countries of the entire post-Soviet space. From 2006 to 2012, as part of the project, we created 60 documentaries about representatives of various Russian ethnic groups. Also, 2 cycles of radio programs "Music and songs of the peoples of Russia" were created - more than 40 programs. Illustrated almanacs have been released to support the first series of films.

Now we are halfway to creating a unique multimedia encyclopedia of the peoples of our country, a picture that will allow the inhabitants of Russia to recognize themselves and leave a picture of what they were like for posterity.

General information

ALEUTS- few people. According to the 2010 census, only 482 Aleuts live on the Commander Islands (Russia). There are also American Aleuts. There are about two thousand of them, and they live in the Aleutian Islands and Alaska. In the middle of the 18th century, the number of Aleuts reached 15 thousand people.

At the end of the 18th century, the Aleuts, having experienced a strong influence of Russian culture, were converted to Orthodoxy. Schooling and bilingualism spread. Religious books appeared, translated into the Aleut language.

The Aleut language belongs to the Eskimo-Aleut family of languages. The Russian language had the greatest influence on the Aleut language in the field of vocabulary. There are a lot of borrowings from the Russian language. Most of the words were borrowed to designate new household items, dishes, clothes, etc. Many words penetrated the Aleut language in connection with the adoption of Orthodoxy.

The Aleuts still remain staunch adherents of Orthodoxy, religious rites are performed in Russian and Aleut languages. The sea and the sea coast provided the Aleuts with everything necessary for life. The rhythm of the life of the sea: its ebb and flow, the approach to the shores of shoals of spawning fish and sea animals striving for coastal haulouts, the spring revival of bird markets, the appearance of mollusks and algae on the shallows - all this determined the rhythm of life and occupation of the Aleuts during the year.

The ability to predict the weather is vital for the inhabitants of the islands, and the Aleuts know how to do it perfectly. The appearance of the water surface, the shape of the waves and clouds can tell a lot to experienced observers what the Aleuts were like. Until now, the Aleutian secrets of weather forecasting have not been unraveled.

Household and life

The history of the study of the Aleuts begins with the discovery in 1741 of the Aleutian Islands by the Great Northern (Second Kamchatka) Expedition (1733 - 1743). Russian navigators, researchers, industrialists collected data on the culture of the people. For a long time there were two hypotheses of their origin.

According to one, the Aleuts came from the northeast Asian coast, according to another, from Alaska. Studies prove that the formation of the anthropological type, language and culture took place 6000 - 4600 years ago. There is an assumption that the Aleuts were the southern group of the Eskimos, according to other sources - they stood out as an independent ethnic group for a long time. Since 1799, the Aleutian Islands and the adjacent part of Alaska were controlled by the Russian-American Company. In order to develop the uninhabited Commander Islands, the company moved there from these islands part of the Aleuts, the ancestors of the current ones.

In the future, the population of the Commander Islands was replenished not only by Aleuts, but also by Creoles (descendants of Europeans and Aleuts) and Russian industrialists from Atka and California, who married Aleuts. Bering Island was inhabited mainly by people from Atka, in 1827 there were already 110 of them. In 1900, on about. Bering lived 279 Aleuts, and on about. Medny - 253 people from Atau. Now 550 Aleuts live on the Commanders.

The main goal of the Russian-American Company was to preserve their traditional economy as a reliable source of profit. Officials appointed clerks and kayakers to organize fishing on remote islands. The official status of the Aleuts was approaching the status of foreigners Russian Empire; they paid yasak to the treasury, and since 1821 they were recognized as Russian subjects. In 1867, the Aleutian Islands, together with Alaska, were sold to the United States.

In Russia, the Aleuts remained only on the Commanders. From 1891 to 1917, various commercial and industrial companies rented the islands. Features of life Commander Aleuts determined by the isolation of the islands. Until 1867, their population worked for the Russian-American Company: they harvested furs, meat and fat from marine animals, preserving the traditional culture. The main place was occupied by hunting for marine animals from a canoe and the extraction of seals on land.

Fishing began at the end of April. They fished from spring to autumn. In mid-July, they hunted birds with the help of throwing spears (shatin) and a throwing projectile (bola) - a bunch of belts with stone or bone weights at the ends. Having untwisted, the bolas were thrown into the flock and the bird entangled in the belts became the prey of the hunter. They were also caught in bird markets with a large net on a long pole (chirucha), as well as with nets. In winter, seals hunted from the shore. The sea beaver (sea otter) was hunted in the open sea with the help of a harpoon (throwing spear on a long rope), sea lions and walruses - on rookeries, seals were lured ashore by a decoy - an inflated seal skin, imitating the cry of a female, whales were hunted with a spear, the tip of which smeared with poison aconite. After 2-3 days, the sea threw the carcass of the animal ashore.

Harpoons and spears were thrown with the help of spear throwers - wooden planks 50-70 cm long with a longitudinal groove, finger grooves at one end and a bone stop at the other. Bows, arrows and guns were also known. An important role in sea hunting was played by a canoe - a wooden, flat-bottomed frame boat covered with sea lion or seal skin and a kayak - a closed leather boat with a wooden frame and a hatch hole where the hunter sat down.

They controlled it with a two-bladed oar (a prototype of a sports kayak). With the advent of firearms, two-key kayaks began to be made (during firing, the second rower had to maintain balance). Some elements not characteristic of the mainland culture of the Aleuts also spread: for example, on about. Bering, sleds (sledges) with dog teams appeared, on about. Copper - short, wide skis lined with seal skin.

From stone, men made knives, axes, arrowheads and spearheads, vessels for cooking, fat lamps with moss wicks for lighting and heating the home. Women sewed, embroidered clothes, made covers for canoes, wove mats and baskets. The pekulka, a wide short and slightly curved knife, was a female universal tool of labor. The needles were made from bird bones. The villages were located on sea ​​coast, often in the mouths of rivers and consisted of 2-4 large semi-dugouts (ulagams). High, open places were chosen so that from there it was convenient to observe the course of marine animals and the approach of enemies.

Semi-dugouts were built from a fin, and on top they were covered with dry grass, skins and turf. Several quadrangular openings were left in the roof for entry, climbed there along a log with notches. The dwelling accommodated from 10 to 40 families. Inside, bunks were built along the walls. Each family lived on its part of the bunks, separated from each other by poles and curtains. Utensils were stored under the bunks. In the summer they moved to separate light buildings. In the 19th century the traditional semi-dugout was modified: the walls and roof, made of poles and boards, were lined with turf. At the top was a hatch for lighting, on the side - an exit through a small canopy.

Dwellings were illuminated with fat lamps, sometimes stoves were installed. Along with traditional utensils, they used imported factory-made utensils. The traditional clothing was a parka - long deaf (without a slit in front) clothing made from the fur of a fur seal, sea otter, bird skins. A kamleyka was worn over it - deaf waterproof clothing made from the intestines of marine animals with sleeves, a deaf closed collar and a hood (a prototype of a European windbreaker). The edges of the hood and sleeves were tightened with laces. Parkas and kamleikas were decorated with embroidered stripes and fringes.

Traditional fishing jackets with hoods made of sea lion guts and throats, and sealskin trousers have been preserved. Men's and women's clothing completely coincided in cut and decorations. A new type of clothing also appeared - waders - trousers made of sea lion throats, to which waterproof torbasas were sewn - soft skins of marine animals. Shoes - torbasa - soft boots made from the skin of marine animals. AT Everyday life wore Russian clothes.

Fishing headdresses were wooden hats of a conical shape (for toyon leaders) or without a top with a very elongated front part (for ordinary hunters), richly decorated with polychrome painting, carved bone, feathers, and sea lion whiskers. They were put on the hood of a kamlika. Such hats were hollowed out from a single piece of wood, then steamed out, giving the desired shape, and painted in bright colors, creating a fancy ornament. From the sides and back they were decorated with carved walrus tusk plates, engraved with a geometric ornament, into which paint was rubbed.

On the top of the back plate, which simultaneously served as the top of the hat, a bone figurine of a bird or beast was attached. Sea lion whiskers up to 50 centimeters long were inserted into the side holes of the plate. Their number depended on the owner's hunting skill and testified to the number of walruses caught. These hats were worn only by men. Festive and ceremonial headdresses were hats of various shapes made of leather and bird skins with decorations, leather bands with patterned seams. An integral part of the festive decoration is necklaces, bracelets and anklets, inserts and pendants in holes made in the lips and near the lips, as well as in the nose, along the edges of the auricle and in the earlobe. They were made from bone, stone, wooden and slate sticks, feathers, sea lion whiskers, grass and plant roots. The Aleuts tattooed and painted their face and body, but with the beginning of contacts with the Russians, this tradition began to weaken.

Meat and fish were eaten raw, fried or boiled. For the future, they stocked up mainly dried fish and whale oil. The latter was kept in bubbles from the stomachs of marine animals. By the middle of the eighteenth century. the population of each island or group of islands represented an independent territorial association with its own name and dialect. Presumably, these were tribes consisting of tribal communities - associations of persons related by blood relations and the name of a common ancestor. The tribal group was headed by a leader (toyon), he either received power by inheritance or was elected. His duties included trade and political relations, court cases, protection of sea animal rookeries, and control over other lands. As a military head, the leader had economic advantages only after military campaigns and trade deals, in everyday economic activity he was entitled to an equal share with all. In addition to the leader, the tribal group was headed by a council of elders. There are references in the literature to the existence of ancestral communal houses for meetings and celebrations. The Aleuts had slaves (kalga) - mostly prisoners of war. The slave participated in the normal economic activities of the group, in wars.

For courage or for good work, he could be released. Traditional social norms were preserved associated with the remnants of group marriage - an ancient form of marriage, when a group of men were considered potential husbands of a group of women and matrilineal norms (from Latin mater - mother and linea - line: maternal kinship accounts); cross-cousin marriages (from English cross - cross and French cusin - cousin: marriages to cousins ​​\u200b\u200band sisters are a relic of a group marriage concluded between members of two clans); polygamy and polyandry, avunculat (from lat. avunculus - mother's brother), - the custom of maternal uncle patronage in relation to nephews; hospitable hetaerism (the custom according to which the husband provided his wife for the night to the guest).

In the nineteenth century tribal communities broke up. With the adoption of Christianity by the middle of the nineteenth century. basically the dowry (a ransom for the wife) and the work for the wife that replaced it (the husband lived in the family of the wife's parents for 1-2 years and helped to run the household) disappeared, as well as polygamy, polyandry and hospitable hetaerism. At the same time, the ceremonies of matchmaking and weddings spread. Traditional beliefs are characterized by animism (from Latin anima, animus - soul, spirit) - ideas about the soul as a life force and the existence of good and evil spirits and their influence on human life. The spirits of ancestors were revered, whose images made of stone, bone, wood and Iptian skins were inherited as personal amulets. Protective spirits were depicted by wooden masks that were worn during ritual dances.

Among the Aleuts, shamanism was widespread, in the mythology of which there were ideas about different worlds. The shaman costume, like that of some peoples of Siberia, symbolized a bird. In addition to shamanism, there was also hunting magic (from the Greek mageia - witchcraft, sorcery), which consisted in the rituals of summoning the beast, in special hunting prohibitions and wearing amulets that protected the owner. The dead were buried in a sitting position.

Family burials were placed in small depressions among the rocks. There they also put the tools of the deceased, weapons, dishes, ritual masks and personal amulets (objects with supernatural, magical properties). Noble people were buried together with slaves in caves, a painted pillar was placed at the entrance or the bodies of the deceased were hung in baskets between two pillars. The dead were embalmed. One of the main holidays - the winter solstice - was accompanied by dances, dramatic performances of hunting scenes and mythological scenes, and distribution of gifts. The rites that preceded the hunting season were famous for pantomime and dancing to the accompaniment of singing and tambourine. The performers wore special headdresses and wooden masks. At the end of the XVIII century. The Aleuts, having experienced a strong influence of Russian culture, were converted to Orthodoxy. Schooling and bilingualism spread. Religious books appeared, translated into the Aleut language.

It is characteristic that some of the natives became missionaries. The Aleuts still remain staunch adherents of Orthodoxy, religious rites are performed in Russian and Aleut languages. Folklore has not been sufficiently studied, since fundamental research has not been carried out. There are fairy tales, heroic epic (narrative), or heroic tales, stories about ancient customs, everyday stories, songs, sayings and riddles.

Most fairy tales are based on mythological plots. The most common were myths about the spirits of patron animals and etiological (concerning the causes of various phenomena) legends about the initial immortality of people, about the origin of people from a dog that fell from the sky, etc. mainland to the islands, stories about the campaigns of the eastern groups of the Aleuts to the west, about blood feuds that led to cruel wars, etc. Everyday stories tell about fishing trips, travels; legends - about runaway Aleuts hiding from Russians in caves, about distant travels; satirical stories - about a hunter who died from gluttony inside a whale. Many plots reflect traditional family relations: about a husband's infidelity or a jealous wife, about the cohabitation of a hero with his cousin's wife, about hostile relations between a son-in-law and a brother-in-law (wife's brother), etc.

Song folklore was extremely developed. At the holidays, men, to the sound of a tambourine, sang the exploits of their ancestors, daring in fishing, dexterity in managing a canoe. During games, ritual actions and performance of fairy tales, they sang to the accompaniment of a multi-stringed plucked sword-shaped zither (chacha), which was later replaced by a guitar. The predatory exploitation of the fisheries by American and Russian companies led to the impoverishment of the local population, undermining the foundations of traditional culture. At the end of the nineteenth century. population growth slowed down, disease and alcohol led to an increase in mortality. By the 1920s the impoverishment of the Commander Aleuts reached its limit.

After graduation civil war on Far East the restoration of the destroyed economy on the islands began, the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, fish and sea fur trade. The process of the revival of the Aleuts included the creation in 1925 of a fur farm, the allocation in 1928 of the Commander Islands to the Aleutian national region, the participation of the people in management, the training of national intelligentsia, technical specialists. Since 1935, population growth has begun. At the same time, the process of dispersion of the Aleuts, their settling on the mainland, is developing. Since 1969, the Aleuts have mainly lived in the village. Nikolsky. In terms of lifestyle and social structure, they do not differ from the visiting population. The number of interethnic marriages has increased.

general information

Aleuts - indigenous people Commander Islands, administratively part of the Kamchatka region. The Aleuts also live in the USA (the indigenous population of the Aleutian and Pribylov Islands, the southwestern tip of the Alaska Peninsula). The total number of Aleuts is about 13 thousand people, incl. more than 12 thousand in the USA. Self-name - Aleut, Unangan. The Aleuts living on Medny Island called themselves Sasignam. The Eskimos, the closest neighbors of the Aleuts, call them alakshak. The name "Aleut" is of Russian origin. It was given after the discovery of the Aleutian Islands, it is first found in documents in 1747. The etymology of the name is controversial, a connection with the Aleutian alyaguk - "sea" is possible. They speak the Aleutian language, which has three dialects: Unalashka (Eastern), Atka (Central), Attuan (Western).

Currently, there are two dialects in Russia - Bering (the language of the Western dialect group) and Mednov, which is a creolized language with Aleut vocabulary and a mixed Russian-Aleut grammatical system.

Territory of settlement and population

The number of Aleuts in Russia is about 500 people, on the territory former USSR- 528 (1989 census). The Aleuts live compactly in the village of Nikolsky, Aleutsky district of the Kamchatka region. In total, there are about 900 people in the village, of which 315 are Aleuts. A significant Aleut diaspora is concentrated in Kamchatka and in the southern regions of the Far East, in most cases as part of mixed families.

The ancestors of modern Aleuts appeared on the Commanders in the first decades of the 19th century. The Russian-American company moved here several families from the islands of Atka and Attu to hunt marine animals. From the very beginning of the permanent development of the islands, their population was mixed: Aleuts, Russians and Creoles (persons of mixed origin). The interaction of these three main components formed by the end of the 19th century a peculiar cultural image of the Commander Aleuts. At the beginning of the 20th century, there were two large villages on the Commander Islands - Nikolskoye on Bering Island and Preobrazhenske on Medny Island. There were also smaller settlements, mostly seasonal, but often inhabited all year round. The concentration of island production in the 70s led to the liquidation of Preobrazhensky as an independent locality. All residents of the Commander concentrated in the village of Nikolskoe.

Lifestyle and provision system

The main traditional occupations of the Aleuts are hunting for marine animals (sea otters, seals), fishing, island fur farming and gathering. At the beginning of the 20th century, due to a sharp drop in the number of fur seals on the rookeries of the Commander Islands, the importance of seal hunting in the life of the Aleuts decreased. The leading role in the economy began to be played by fishing, fox hunting, as well as gardening and domestic animal husbandry.

Since 1932, when a specialized animal sovkhoz (animal combine) was created at Komandor, all adult male Aleuts and a significant part of women were listed as its workers. Consumer fishing, hunting and gathering continued. In the field of employment, a category of employees began to form, incl. administrative staff.

In the 50s. began a massive influx of newcomers to the islands, the rapid growth of economic and social infrastructure. This immediately had a negative impact on the position of the Aleuts. Very soon, the newcomers forced the indigenous people out of the most profitable and prestigious sectors of the economy. At present, most Aleuts work in public utilities as auxiliary workers (only about 30% of the able-bodied). About 10 people are constantly employed in traditional crafts, and up to 20 people work seasonally (approximately 3-6%). The Aleuts work in a dominant foreign environment, under the guidance of visiting specialists with more high education and professional experience.

Several national enterprises are registered in the Aleutian region, the main activities of which are traditional crafts, and the founders of which are representatives of the Aleutian population, however, they do not always receive limits for catching fish, hunting wild deer and sea animals, and, consequently, there is no development. Currently, some of the enterprises have ceased their activities.

Main problems

Since 1994, the Commander Islands have been a state nature reserve. The protected status, of course, preserves the rare flora and fauna of the territory. But in conditions of economic instability, transport isolation of the region, difficulties in financing, and rising unemployment, the problems of using resources have become more acute. The Aleuts for centuries lived with a sense of feeling the owner of their land. There is no such feeling at present. The state has created an irresistible system of licensing and regulation and does not recognize the rights of the indigenous population to own and use natural resources, which have become a source of enrichment for officials. From the moment of its creation to the present, the reserve has not developed any scientific recommendations for rational nature management. It is necessary to create conditions that allow the indigenous population, without prejudice to the unique nature of the islands, to conduct traditional crafts using modern technologies for the deep processing of products of the commercial economy, the production of gourmet products from fish, venison, fur products, canned food and dry feed for livestock and animals. It is also necessary to increase the participation of Aleuts in environmental activities.

Ethno-social setting

The Aleuts, who once accounted for more than 90% of the population of the Commander, today make up only about 35% of their inhabitants. Like any minority, they are the most vulnerable part of the population, they make up the bulk of the unemployed who are registered with the employment service. Local authorities, when solving the problems of the region, do not pay much attention to the indigenous population. Local laws do not establish any advantages for the Aleuts. Even the federal law the supply of small peoples with traditional food (catch of salmon species of fish) applies to the entire population. Free licenses for hunting deer are not issued. In conditions of isolation from the mainland, social problems seriously complicate the situation on the Commanders. The housing stock has not been repaired for many years, the residents themselves import the necessary materials for repairs from the mainland. Exorbitant in conditions of mass unemployment have become increased tariffs for electricity, payment for surplus living space. Not taken into account climatic conditions territory.

A limit has been set for electricity consumption - 100 kW per person per month, which does not meet the needs of the population. The quality of power supply is low, the voltage in the network fluctuates from 140 to 200 volts, during bad weather, and it is constantly on the islands, electricity may not be supplied for weeks. The heating and water supply systems of residential and social buildings are in critical condition.

Ethno-cultural situation

Commander Aleuts, originally formed as a Creole ethnic community, which became Soviet time independent "small" people of the North, are currently turning into a Russian-speaking old-timer group. All Commander Aleuts are Russian-speaking. According to linguists, today only two dozen elderly people are still native speakers of their native language. However, the problem of losing their native language is characteristic of almost the majority of the indigenous peoples of the North of the Russian Federation. Created in the 30s and restored on a Russian graphic basis in the late 80s. writing in the Aleutian language is practically not used. Language at school is taught at the elective level.

Deep isolation of the Commander from the rest of the country and the region, limited access to the islands for the visiting population and, as a result, the slowness of assimilation processes create conditions for the stable functioning of the established culture. From this point of view, the ethnocultural situation on the Commanders is unique, and the Aleuts themselves are of exceptional interest as the only most prominent Creole group within the modern territory of the Russian Federation. The current generation of Aleuts strives to preserve and revive their cultural heritage. The Aleutian Museum of Local Lore operates. An important role in the preservation of folk traditions is played by the Unangan national ensemble and the Chiyan family ensemble, created in the early 1980s. There are attempts to revive the tradition of bone and stone carving as a kind of applied art, the attractiveness of traditional Aleut parties and other national forms of leisure is growing.

An important role in the preservation of the culture of the Aleuts is called upon to play the ethnocultural center created in the village. Nikolsky at the expense of the federal budget. It is also necessary to restore permanent cultural ties with the Aleuts living in Alaska.

Management and self-government

The Commander Islands as a special Aleutian national region within the Kamchatka region were allocated in 1928. In the mid-30s. this status was abolished and restored in the post-war period. The status of a national region does not currently give the Aleuts any advantages. Their participation in local authorities is purely symbolic. Due to the low representation in power structures, they are not able to influence the state of affairs. In the administration of the district, a specialist in the peoples of the North deals with the problems of the indigenous population. The only self-governing body of the Aleuts is the Association of the Peoples of the North "Ansarko" of the Aleut district of the Kamchatka region, which unites the Aleuts and members of their families living in the village of Nikolsky. The supreme body is the general meeting. Between meetings, the work is managed by a board of five people, headed by a president elected by the general meeting for four years. The main activity of the Association is the protection of the rights of the local indigenous population in matters of land use, social protection, and provision of traditional food. The district administration does not provide practical assistance. Due to the small number, as well as the difficult financial situation of the population, the Association cannot carry out its activities at the expense of membership fees. It does not have full-time employees, permanent premises. The activities of the Association are carried out on a voluntary basis.

Certain hopes are pinned on the International Association of Aleuts, established in September 1998, a permanent member of the Arctic Council. The purpose of the organization is to promote the further economic and cultural development of the Aleuts of Russia and Alaska.

Legal documents and laws

Organs municipality normative acts on the rights of the indigenous peoples of the North were not adopted. The Decree of the President of the Russian Federation “On urgent measures to protect the places of residence and economic activity of the small peoples of the North” dated April 22, 1992 has not been implemented.

Prospects for the preservation of the Aleuts as an ethnic group

For the future of the Commander Aleuts as a unique ethnocultural group, it is necessary, first of all, to recognize their rights to land and Natural resources. Creation of conditions under which they would be able to work and thereby ensure the normal existence of their families. Benefits and social allowances only contribute to the education of dependent attitudes and cannot serve as a basis for the revival of a full-blooded ethnic life. To preserve the language and national culture it is necessary to create conditions for visa-free travel of the Aleuts of Russia and Alaska.

Sulyandziga R.V., Kudryashova D.A., Sulyandziga P.V. Indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East Russian Federation. Overview of the current situation. M, 2003. 142 p.

Self-name - Aleut, Unangan.

Indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands Most of lives in the USA - the southwest of the Alaska Peninsula (up to the Ugashika River in the north) and some small islands adjacent to it (about 2 thousand people) and in Russia (482 people) on the Commander Islands (Bering Island, Medny Island), where lives since the beginning of the 19th century, in Kamchatka, etc.

The Aleut language of the Eskimo-Aleut family. Dialects: Unalashka (Eastern), Atka (Central), Attuan (Western). Few retained their native language, they switched to English, Russian.

The history of the study of the Aleuts begins with the discovery in 1741 of the Aleutian Islands by the Great Northern (Second Kamchatka) Expedition (1733-1743). Russian navigators, researchers, industrialists collected data on the culture of the people.

Ethnogenesis and ethnic history: the main part of their territory was settled by the ancestors of the Aleuts during the migration of peoples from Asia to America 10-12 thousand years ago. The name "Aleuts" was given by the Russians after they discovered the Aleutian Islands and is first found in documents of 1747. Since 1799, the territory of the Aleuts was controlled by the Russian-American Company, which settled the uninhabited Commander and Pribylov Islands with the Aleuts. The Aleuts were converted to Orthodoxy and were strongly influenced by Russian culture. In 1867, the Aleutian Islands and Alaska were sold to the United States.

The main traditional occupations of the Aleuts before contacts with Europeans were hunting for marine animals (seals, sea lions, sea otters, etc.) and fishing. Gathering was of secondary importance. They made hunting and fishing tools, weapons made of stone, bone, wood, leather-covered boats - multi-oared kayaks, one-, two-, three-hull kayaks.

In Russia, the Commander Islands were allocated (1928) to the Aleutian national region (since 1932 in the Kamchatka region), liquidated in the mid-1930s, now restored. Along with the traditional ones, new branches of the economy are developing: fur farming (mink), animal husbandry, and gardening.

By the middle of the 18th century, property and social differentiation and military organization existed.

Aleut villages usually consisted of 2-4 large (from 10 to 40 families) semi-dugouts.

The traditional clothes of the Aleuts (men's and women's) - the parka - long deaf clothes made of fur of a seal, sea otter, bird skins. A kamlika was worn over it - clothes made from the intestines of sea animals with sleeves, a blind collar and a hood. Shoes - torbasa (boots made from the skins of marine animals). Hunters wore wooden hats - conical or with an open top, with an elongated large visor, decorated with carved bone, sea lion mustache, feathers, etc.

An important role in the sea hunting of the Aleuts was played by a canoe - a flat-bottomed boat with a wooden frame, covered with sea lion or seal skin, and a kayak - a closed leather boat with a wooden frame and a hatch hole, where the hunter sat (the prototype of a sports kayak). It was steered with a two-bladed oar. Before the arrival of the Russians, the weapons of the Aleuts were light darts with bone tips, bows, stone or bone knives.

The main traditional food is the meat of marine animals and poultry, fish (mainly in raw form), marine invertebrates, algae, berries, and roots.

Traditional beliefs are characterized by belief in spirits, there was shamanism.

R.G. Lyapunov

According to the 2010 Population Census, the number of Aleuts living in Russia is 482 people.

   population- 702 people (as of 2001).
Language- Eskimo-Aleut family of languages.
resettlement- Kamchatka region.

In Russia, the Aleuts live on the Commander Islands (Medny, Bering Islands), while most of them (2 thousand people) live in the USA (Alaska, Aleutian Islands). Their number in the middle of the XVIII century. reached 12-15 thousand people.

The language supposedly became isolated 3-4 thousand years ago and was one of the ancient dialects of the Eskimo language. On Bering Island, the Atka dialect of the Aleutian language was widespread; on Medny Island, a new dialect was formed based on the Atka dialect and the Russian language. When communicating, the inhabitants of these islands hardly understood each other. The first grammar of the Aleut language was compiled at the beginning of the 19th century. based on Cyrillic. The name "Aleut" was given by the Russians and was first found in documents in 1747, presumably comes from the Chukchi aliat - "island", aliut - "islanders" or from allitkhukh - "detachment, army, community" (there is also an assumption that this is a modified word alut, which was used to call the inhabitants of the village of Alyutorsky on the eastern coast of Kamchatka). The ethnonym (from the Greek ethnos - people, onima - name: self-name of the people) of the Mednov Aleuts - sasignan, saskinan, Bering - unangan, negosis, negogahvs. The name "Aleuts" took root at the beginning of the 20th century.

The history of the study of the Aleuts begins with the discovery in 1741 of the Aleutian Islands by the Great Northern (Second Kamchatka) Expedition (1733–1743). Russian navigators, researchers, industrialists collected data on the culture of the people. For a long time there were two hypotheses of their origin. According to one, the Aleuts came from the northeast Asian coast, according to another, from Alaska. Studies prove that the formation of the anthropological type, language and culture took place 6000-4600 years ago. There is an assumption that the Aleuts were the southern group of the Eskimos, according to other sources - they stood out as an independent ethnic group (from the Greek ethnos - people) for a long time.

Since 1799, the Aleutian Islands and the adjoining part of Alaska were controlled by the Russian-American Company. To develop the uninhabited Commander Islands, the company resettled part of the Aleuts there. Subsequently, the population of the Commander Islands was replenished not only by Aleuts, but also by Creoles (descendants of Europeans and Aleuts) and Russian industrialists from Atki Island and California, who married Aleuts. Bering Island was inhabited mainly by people from Atka, in 1827 there were already 110 of them. In 1900, 279 Aleuts lived on Bering Island, and 253 people from Attu Island lived on Medny Island. Now 550 Aleuts live on the Commanders. The main goal of the Russian-American Company was to preserve their traditional economy as a reliable source of profit. Officials appointed clerks and kayakers to organize fishing on remote islands. The official status of the Aleuts was approaching the status of foreigners of the Russian Empire; they paid yasak to the treasury (in Russia in the 15th–20th centuries, the tax in kind from the peoples of Siberia and the North was mainly furs). Since 1821 they have been recognized as Russian subjects. In 1867, the Aleutian Islands, together with Alaska, were sold to the United States. In Russia, the Aleuts remained only on the Commanders. From 1891 to 1917, various commercial and industrial companies rented the islands.

The features of the life of the Commander Aleuts were determined by the isolation of the islands. Until 1867, their population continued to work for the Russian-American Company: they harvested furs, meat and fat from marine animals, preserving the traditional culture. The main place was occupied by hunting for marine animals from a canoe and the extraction of seals on land.

Fishing began at the end of April. They fished from spring to autumn. In mid-July, they hunted birds with the help of throwing spears (shatin) and a throwing projectile (bola) - a bunch of belts with stone or bone weights at the ends. Having untwisted, the bolas were thrown into the flock, and the bird entangled in the belts became the prey of the hunter. Birds were also caught in bird markets with a large net on a long pole (chirucha), as well as nets. In winter, seals hunted from the shore. The sea beaver (sea otter) was hunted in the open sea with the help of a harpoon - a throwing spear on a long rope, sea lions and walruses were hunted on rookeries, seals were lured ashore by a decoy - an inflated seal skin, imitating the cry of a female, whales were hunted with a spear, the tip of which was smeared aconite poison. After 2–3 days, the sea threw the carcass of the animal ashore. Harpoons and spears were thrown with the help of spear throwers - wooden planks 50–70 cm long with a longitudinal groove, finger grooves at one end and a bone stop at the other. Bows, arrows and guns were also known.

Handbags made of herbs (late 19th - early 20th century)

An important role in sea hunting was played by a canoe - a flat-bottomed boat with a wooden frame, covered with sea lion or seal skin, and a kayak - a closed leather boat with a wooden frame and a hatch hole where the hunter sat (the prototype of a sports kayak). It was steered with a two-bladed oar. With the advent of firearms, two-hitch canoes began to be made (during the shooting, the second rower had to maintain balance).

Some devices for movement, uncharacteristic for the culture of the Aleuts, also spread. On Bering Island, for example, sleds (sleighs) with dog teams appeared, on Medny Island - short, wide skis lined with seal skins.

From stone, men made knives, axes, arrowheads and spearheads, vessels for cooking, fat lamps with moss wicks for lighting and heating the home. Women sewed and embroidered clothes, made covers for canoes, wove mats and baskets. The pekulka, a wide short and slightly curved knife, was a female universal tool of labor. The needles were made from bird bones.

The villages were located on the sea coast, often at the mouths of rivers, and consisted of 2–4 large semi-dugouts (ulagams). For them, high, open places were chosen so that it was convenient to observe marine animals and the approach of enemies. Semi-dugouts were built from driftwood, covered with dry grass, skins and turf. Several quadrangular openings were left in the roof for entry, climbed there along a log with notches. The dwelling accommodated from 10 to 40 families. Inside, bunks were built along the walls. Each family lived on its part of the bunks, separated from each other by poles and curtains. Utensils were stored under the bunks. In the summer they moved to separate light buildings. In the 19th century the traditional semi-dugout was modified: the walls and roof, made of poles and boards, were covered with turf. At the top was a hatch for lighting, on the side - an exit through a small canopy. They illuminated the dwellings with fat lamps, sometimes they laid stoves. Along with traditional utensils, they used imported factory-made utensils.

1. Parka made of bird skins
2. Kamleyka from sea lions for fishing

The traditional clothing was a parka - long deaf (without a slit in front) clothing made from the fur of a fur seal, sea otter, bird skins. A kamleika was worn over it - deaf waterproof clothing made from the intestines of marine animals with sleeves, a deaf closed collar and a hood (a prototype of a European windbreaker). The edges of the hood and sleeves were tightened with laces. Parkas and kamleikas were decorated with embroidered stripes and fringes. Traditional fishing jackets with hoods made of sea lion guts and throats, and sealskin trousers have been preserved. Men's and women's clothing completely coincided in cut and decorations. Later, a new type of clothing appeared - brodni - trousers made of sea lion throats, to which waterproof torbasas were sewn - soft boots made from the skin of marine animals. In everyday life they wore European clothes.

Hats are striking in shape, coloring, drawings, carvings, color engraving on them.

Fishing headdresses were wooden hats of a conical shape (for leaders - toyons) or without a top, with a very elongated front part (for ordinary hunters), richly decorated with polychrome painting, carved bone, feathers, sea lion mustaches. They were put on the hood of a kamlika. Hats were hollowed out from a whole piece of wood, then steamed out and, having given the desired shape, painted in bright colors with intricate ornaments. From the sides and back they were decorated with carved walrus tusk plates, engraved with a geometric ornament, into which paint was rubbed. A bone figurine of a bird or animal was attached to the top of the back plate, which also served as the top of the hat. A 50-centimeter sea lion mustache was inserted into the side holes of the plate, the number of which depended on the hunting merit of the owner. These hats were worn only by men.

Seal fur, leather, reindeer hair, sea lion trachea, hatchet beaks were used for ritual headdresses.

Festive and ceremonial headdresses were hats of various shapes made of leather and bird skins with decorations, leather bands with patterned seams. An integral part of the festive decoration is necklaces, bracelets and anklets, inserts and pendants in the holes made in the lips and near the lips, as well as in the nose, along the edges of the auricle and in the earlobe. They were made from bone, stone, wooden and slate sticks, feathers, sea lion whiskers, grass and plant roots. The Aleuts tattooed and painted their face and body, but with the beginning of contacts with the Russians, this tradition began to weaken.

Meat and fish were eaten raw, fried or boiled. For the future, they stocked up mainly dried fish and whale oil. The latter was kept in bubbles from the stomachs of marine animals.

By the middle of the eighteenth century. the population of each island or group of islands represented an independent territorial association with its own name and dialect. Presumably, these were tribes consisting of tribal communities - associations of persons related by blood relations and the name of a common ancestor. The tribal group was headed by toyon. He either received power by inheritance, or was elected. His duties included trade and political relations, court cases, protection of sea animal rookeries, and control over other lands. As a military leader, the leader had economic advantages only after military campaigns and trade deals; in everyday economic activities, he was entitled to an equal share with everyone. In addition to the leader, the tribal group was headed by a council of elders. There are references in the literature to the existence of ancestral communal houses for meetings and celebrations.

Ornaments: 1, 3 - patterns on a wicker bag; 2 - on a snuffbox; 4 - 5 - embroidery with colored threads; 6, 7 - patterns on wicker baskets; 8 - 17 - on ceremonial and ritual headdresses

The Aleuts had slaves (kalga) - mostly prisoners of war. The slave participated in ordinary economic activities, in wars. For courage or for good work, he could be released.

Traditional social norms remained associated with the remnants of group marriage (an ancient form of marriage, when a group of men were considered potential husbands of a group of women) and matrilineal norms (from Latin mater - mother and linea - line: maternal kinship accounts); cross-cousin marriages (from English cross - cross and French cusin - cousin: marriages of cousins ​​\u200b\u200band sisters are a relic of a group marriage concluded between members of two clans); polygamy and polyandry, avunculat (from Latin avunculus - mother's brother) - the custom of maternal uncle patronage in relation to nephews; hospitable hetaerism (the custom according to which the husband provided his wife for the night to the guest).

In the nineteenth century tribal communities broke up. With the adoption of Christianity by the middle of the nineteenth century. kalym basically disappeared - a ransom for a wife and working off for a wife replacing it (a husband lived in the family of his wife's parents for 1-2 years and helped run the household), as well as polygamy, polyandry and hospitable hetaerism. At the same time, the ceremonies of matchmaking and weddings spread.

Magical rites were associated with bird feathers, skins and images of birds.

Traditional beliefs are characterized by animism (from Latin anima, animus - soul, spirit) - ideas about the soul as a life force and the existence of good and evil spirits and their influence on human life. The spirits of ancestors were revered, whose images made of stone, bone, wood and bird skins were inherited as personal amulets. Protective spirits were depicted by wooden masks that were worn during ritual dances. Among the Aleuts, shamanism was widespread, in whose mythology there were ideas about different worlds. The shaman costume, like that of some peoples of Siberia, symbolized a bird. In addition to animism and shamanism, there was also hunting magic (from the Greek mageia - witchcraft, sorcery), which consisted in the rituals of summoning the beast, in special hunting prohibitions and wearing amulets that protected the owner.

Grass fiber baskets

The dead were buried in a sitting position. Family burials were placed in small depressions among the rocks. There they also put the tools of the deceased, weapons, dishes, ritual masks and personal amulets (objects with supernatural, magical properties). Noble people were buried together with slaves in caves, a painted pillar was placed at the entrance or the bodies of the deceased were hung in baskets between two pillars. The dead were embalmed.

One of the main holidays - the winter solstice - was accompanied by dances, dramatic performances of hunting scenes and mythological scenes, and distribution of gifts. The rites that preceded the hunting season were famous for pantomime and dancing to the accompaniment of singing and tambourine. The performers wore special headdresses and wooden masks.

At the end of the XVIII century. The Aleuts, having experienced a strong influence of Russian culture, were converted to Orthodoxy. Schooling and bilingualism spread. Religious books appeared, translated into the Aleut language. Characteristically, some natives became missionaries. The Aleuts still remain staunch adherents of Orthodoxy, religious rites are performed in Russian and Aleut languages.

Animal bladder bag

Folklore has not been sufficiently studied, its fundamental research has not been conducted.

There are fairy tales, heroic epic (narration), or heroic tales, stories about ancient customs, everyday stories, songs, sayings and riddles.

Most fairy tales are based on mythological plots. The most common are myths about the spirits of animal patrons and etiological (explaining the cause of various phenomena) legends about the initial immortality of people, the origin of people from a dog that fell from the sky, etc. The heroic epic includes legends about the ancestors, about the fight against cannibals, about the resettlement of people from the mainland to the islands, stories about the campaigns of the eastern groups of the Aleuts to the west, about blood feuds that led to cruel wars, etc. Everyday stories tell about fishing trips and travels; legends - about runaway Aleuts hiding from Russians in caves, distant travels; satirical stories about a hunter who died of gluttony inside a whale. Many plots reflect traditional family relations: about the infidelity of a husband or a jealous wife, the cohabitation of a hero with his cousin's wife, hostile relations between a son-in-law and a brother-in-law (wife's brother), etc.

Song folklore was extremely developed. At the holidays, men, to the sound of a tambourine, sang the exploits of their ancestors, daring in fishing, dexterity in managing a canoe. During games, ritual actions and performance of fairy tales, they sang to the accompaniment of a multi-stringed plucked sword-shaped zither (chacha), which was later replaced by a guitar.

The predatory exploitation of the fisheries by American and Russian companies led to the impoverishment of the local population, undermining the foundations of traditional culture. At the end of the nineteenth century. population growth slowed down, disease and alcohol led to an increase in mortality. By the 20s. 20th century the impoverishment of the Commander Aleuts reached its limit. After the end of the civil war in the Far East, the restoration of the destroyed economy on the islands began, the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, fish and sea fur trade. The process of the revival of the Aleuts included the creation in 1925 of a fur farm, the allocation in 1928 of the Commander Islands to the Aleutian national region, the participation of the people in management, the training of national intelligentsia, technical specialists. Since 1935, population growth has begun, but many of the Aleuts settle on the mainland. Along with traditional types of economy, new industries are developing - fur farming, animal husbandry and gardening. Schoolchildren from Nikolskoe ( Bering Island) learn their native language. In the late 1960s the Aleutian Folk Museum was opened, in 1994 - a folklore ensemble. The newspapers "Aleutskaya Zvezda" and "Aboriginal of Kamchatka" are published in Russian. The programs of the State Television and Radio Company "Kamchatka" systematically talk about the activities of the Aleut community, about folk holidays, rituals and customs of the natives.