Who are the Mayans and Aztecs. ancient civilizations of latin america

A little over ten years ago, on October 12, 1992, one of the most significant dates in the history of mankind was celebrated on planet Earth - the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America. There are many hypotheses about when people appeared in the Western Hemisphere, in North and South America, on numerous islands and when people came to the American continent. For the fifth century (since the 16th century), pundits have been arguing on this issue. In numerous studies on this topic, among the first inhabitants of America, people with canary islands, Phoenicians and Carthaginians, ancient Greeks and Romans, Jews, Spaniards, Egyptians and Babylonians, Chinese and even Tatars and Scythians.

Science developed, and as new discoveries accumulated knowledge, there was a selection of hypotheses. Today there is no doubt that the part of the world marked on the world map as America was inhabited by people from other continents. However, with what exactly - it has not been finally decided. Nevertheless, scientists managed to identify many common features inherent in all Indians, bringing them closer to the Mongoloid peoples of Asia. Appearance the original inhabitants of America at the time of their first meetings with Europeans was as follows: a stocky figure, short legs, medium-sized feet, rather long, but with small hands, high and usually wide forehead, poorly developed superciliary arches. The face of the Indian had a large, strongly protruding nose (often, especially in the north, the so-called aquiline), a rather large mouth. The eyes are usually dark brown. The hair is black, straight, thick.

In many of the first European documentary and literary sources, it was indicated that the Indians were redskins. In fact, this is not true. The skin of representatives of various Indian tribes is rather yellow-brown. According to modern researchers, the name "Redskins" was given to them by the first linen settlers. It did not arise by chance. It was once common among the North American Indians to rub their face and body with red ocher on solemn occasions. Therefore, the Europeans called them the Redskins.

At present, anthropologists distinguish three main groups of Indians - North American, South American and Central American, whose representatives differ in height, skin color and other characteristics.

Most researchers believe that the settlement of the American continent came from Asia through the Bering Strait. Scientists believe that four great glaciations helped the ancient people overcome the water space. According to this hypothesis, during the glaciations, the Bering Strait froze and turned into a kind of huge bridge. Asian tribes, who led a nomadic way of life, freely moved along it to the neighboring mainland. Based on this, the time of the appearance of man on the American continent is also determined - this happened 10-30 thousand years ago.

By the time the Spanish caravels appeared under the command of Christopher Columbus, east coast New World (October 1492) North and South America, including the islands of the West Indies, was inhabited by many tribes and nationalities. With the light hand of the famous navigator, who assumed that he discovered the new lands of India, they began to be called Indians. These tribes were at different levels of development. According to most researchers, before the European conquest, the most advanced civilizations of the Western Hemisphere developed in Mesoamerica and the Andes. The term "Mesoamerica" ​​was introduced in the 40s of the XX century by the German scientist Paul Kirchoff. Since then, in archeology, this is how the geographical region, which includes Mexico and most Central America(to the Nicoya Peninsula in Costa Rica). It was this territory that, at the time of its discovery by Europeans, was inhabited by many Indian tribes and presented a motley picture of the cultures that they represented. According to the correct definition of the Czech Americanist Miloslav Stingl, "these cultures were at various stages of development of a tribal society, and the general patterns of evolution inherent in the primitive communal formation manifested themselves here in a variety of local variants and forms." The most striking and developed civilizations of Ancient America (pre-Columbian period), scientists include cultures such as Olmec, Teotihuacan, Mayan, Toltec and Aztec.

The study of the art of ancient America, its history is relatively young. It is a little over a hundred years old. American researchers do not currently have at their disposal such rich material and achievements that are available today in the field of the study of ancient art. They also experience great difficulties due to the fact that in order to reinforce their conclusions obtained as a result archaeological sites and discoveries, do not have such a number of written monuments that are, for example, at the disposal of researchers ancient east. Among the ancient Americans, writing appeared much later and never reached a high level of development. The written monuments of the peoples of Mesoamerica that have come down to us have not yet been sufficiently studied. Therefore, most of the information relating to political history, social order, mythology, conquests, titles and names of rulers are based only on Indian traditions. Many of them were recorded after the Spanish conquest and date back to the first half of the 16th century. It is also important to remember that until that time the ancient American civilizations had developed without any influence from the European or Asian centers. Until the 16th century, their development proceeded completely independently.

The art of Ancient America, like any other art, has a number of features and characteristics, only inherent in it. In order to comprehend this originality, a dialectical approach is necessary, taking into account the historical conditions under which art and culture developed. ancient civilizations Mesoamerica.

The highest flourishing of the culture of the Mayan Indian tribe, scientists refer to the 7th-8th centuries. The Aztec Empire reached its apogee by the beginning of the 16th century. Very often in the works of archaeologists and researchers of ancient cultural civilizations, the Maya Indian peoples (as older ones) are called by analogy "Greeks", and the Aztecs (as they existed later) - "Romans" of the New World.

The cultural traditions of the Mayan Indians had a huge impact on the Yucatan Peninsula, in Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador, as well as in several states of modern Mexico. The geographical boundaries of the distribution of this civilization were 325,000 km2 and covered the habitat of several tens, and possibly hundreds of tribes. In general, the tribes inherited a single culture. However, in many ways it had, of course, and regional features.

The Mayan civilization stood out primarily for its achievements in construction and architecture. Representatives of this nationality created exquisite and perfect works of painting and sculpture, had unique masters in stone processing and ceramics. The Maya had a deep knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. The greatest achievement is their introduction of such a mathematical concept as "zero". They began to apply it hundreds of years earlier than other highly developed civilizations.

The Aztecs appeared in Central Mexico in the second half of the 12th century. No historical data about them has been found so far. There are only a few legends and traditions, from which it is known that they called the island of Aztlan (Astlan) their homeland. One of the traditional descriptions of the alleged life of ancestors in Aztlan is known, allegedly compiled for the last of the pre-Hispanic rulers of the Aztec state, the famous Montezuma II the Younger, based on ancient manuscripts. According to this source, the ancestral home of Aztlán was located on an island (or was an island) where big mountain with caves that served as dwellings. From this word, which denoted the location of the island (Aztlan), the name of the tribe came from - the Aztecs (more precisely, the Aztecs). However, science has not yet established the exact geographical position this island.

In the earliest stages of their existence, the Aztecs were dominated by a nomadic lifestyle, they were mainly engaged in hunting. This left an imprint on their character. By nature they were very warlike. For almost two centuries, the Az-Teks waged wars of conquest, and at the beginning of the 14th century, having conquered many other tribes that lived in Central Mexico, they created a powerful empire. Around 1325, the city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City) they founded became its capital.

At present, interest in the study of ancient Indian civilizations has not faded. Architectural monuments, sculpture, decorations, household items found in places where peoples with an original, unique culture lived several millennia ago still contain a lot of unsolved things. Learning the history of pre-Columbian America, leading archaeologists and scientists of our time are trying to find an explanation for many of the most important aspects of the life of ancient human communities.

By the time Columbus "discovered" America (1492), it was inhabited by many Indian tribes and ethnic groups, most of which were at the primitive stage of development. However, some of them, who lived in Mesoamerica (Central America) and the Andes (South America), reached the level of highly developed ancient civilizations, although they lagged far behind Europe: the latter was by then experiencing the heyday of the Renaissance.

The meeting of two worlds, two cultures and civilizations had different consequences for the meeting parties. Europe borrowed many achievements of Indian civilizations, in particular, it was thanks to America that Europeans began to use potatoes, tomatoes, corn, beans, tobacco, cocoa, and quinine. In general, after the discovery of the New World, the development of Europe accelerated significantly. The fate of ancient American cultures and civilizations was completely different: the development of some of them actually stopped, and many disappeared altogether from the face of the earth.

Available scientific data indicate that the American continent did not have its own centers of formation ancient man. The settlement of this continent by people began in the Late Paleolithic era - about 30-20 thousand years ago - and went from Northeast Asia through the Bering Strait and Alaska. The further evolution of emerging communities went through all known stages and had both similarities and differences from other continents.

An example of a highly developed primitive culture of the New World is the so-called olmec culture, existing on south coast Gulf of Mexico in the 1st millennium BC In relation to this culture, much remains unclear and mysterious. In particular, a specific ethnic group is not known - the carrier (the name "Olmec" is conditional) of this culture is not defined common area its distribution, as well as the peculiarities of the social structure, etc.

Nevertheless, the available archaeological evidence suggests that in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. The tribes inhabiting Verascus and Tabasco reached a high level of development. They have the first "ritual centers", they build pyramids of adobe and clay, build monuments of monumental sculpture. An example of such monuments were huge anthropomorphic heads weighing up to 20 tons. Relief carving on basalt and jade, the manufacture of Celtic axes, masks and figurines are widely used. In the 1st century BC. the first samples of writing and calendar appear. Similar cultures existed in other parts of the continent.

Ancient cultures and civilizations developed by the end of the 1st millennium BC. and continued until the 16th century. AD before the arrival of the Europeans. Their evolution is usually divided into two periods: early, or classical (I millennium AD), and late, or postclassical (X-XVI centuries AD).

Among the most significant cultures of Mesoamerica of the classical period is teotihuacan. originated in Central Mexico. The surviving ruins of Teotihuacan, the capital of the civilization of the same name, testify that it was the political, economic and cultural center of all Mesoamerica with a population of 60-120 thousand people. Crafts and trade developed most successfully in it. Archaeologists have discovered in the city about 500 craft workshops, entire neighborhoods of foreign merchants and "diplomats". Products of masters are found almost throughout Central America.

It is noteworthy that almost the entire city was a kind of architectural monument. Its center was carefully planned around two wide streets intersecting at right angles: from north to south - Road of the Dead Avenue over 5 km long, and from west to east - an unnamed avenue up to 4 km long.

At the northern end of the Road of the Dead rises a huge silhouette of the Pyramid of the Moon (42 m high), built of raw brick and lined with volcanic stone. On the other side of the avenue, there is an even more grandiose structure - the Pyramid of the Sun (64.5 m high), on top of which a temple once stood. The intersection of the avenues is occupied by the palace of the ruler of Teotihuacan - the "Citadel", which is a complex of buildings, which included the temple the god Quetzalcoatl Feathered Serpent, one of the main deities, the patron of culture and knowledge, the god of air and wind. Only its pyramidal base survived from the temple, consisting of six decreasing stone platforms, as if placed on top of each other. Facade of the pyramid and balustrade front staircase decorated with sculpted heads of Quetzalcoatl himself and the god of water and rain Tlaloc in the form of a butterfly.

Along the Road of the Dead are the remains of dozens more temples and palaces. Among them is the beautiful Palace of Quetzalpapalotl, or the Palace of the Feathered Snail, reconstructed today, the walls of which are decorated with frescoes. There are also fine examples of such painting in the Temple of Agriculture, which depicts gods, people and animals. The original monuments of the culture under consideration are anthropomorphic masks made of stone and clay. In the III-VII centuries. widely used ceramics - cylindrical vessels with picturesque paintings or carved ornaments - and terracotta figurines.

The culture of Teotihuacan reached its peak by the beginning of the 7th century. AD However, already at the end of the same century, the beautiful city suddenly perishes, destroyed by a gigantic fire. The causes of this catastrophe still remain unclear - most likely as a result of the invasion of the militant barbarian tribes of Northern Mexico.

Aztec culture

After the death of Teotihuacan, Central Mexico plunged into troubled times of interethnic wars and internecine strife for a long time. As a result of repeated mixing of local tribes with newcomers - first with the Chichemecs, and then the tenochki pharmacies - in 1325, the capital of the Aztecs was founded on the desert islands of Lake Texcoco Tenochtitlan. The emerging city-state grew rapidly and by the beginning of the 16th century. turned into one of the most powerful powers in America - the famous Aztec empire with a vast territory and a population of 5-6 million people. Its borders stretched from northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico.

The capital itself - Tenochtitlan - became a large city with a population of 120-300 thousand inhabitants. This island city was connected to the mainland by three wide stone dam roads. According to eyewitnesses, the Aztec capital was a beautiful, well-planned city. Its ritual and administrative center was a magnificent architectural ensemble, which included a walled "sacred site", inside which the main city temples, the dwellings of priests, schools, a playground for a ritual ball game were located. Nearby were at least magnificent palaces Aztec rulers.

basis economy Aztecs was agriculture, and the main cultivated crop - corn. It should be emphasized that it was the Aztecs who were the first to grow cocoa beans And tomatoes; they are the authors of the word "tomatoes". Many crafts were at a high level, especially gold coinage. When the great Albrecht Dürer saw the Aztec goldwork in 1520, he declared: "Never in my life have I seen anything that would move me so deeply as these objects."

Reached the highest level spiritual culture of the Aztecs. This was largely facilitated by the effective education system, which included two types of schools in which the male population studied. In schools of the first type, boys from the upper stratum were brought up, who were to become a priest, dignitary or military leader. In schools of the second type, boys from ordinary families studied, where they were prepared for agricultural work, crafts and military affairs. Schooling was compulsory.

The system of religious and mythological representations and cults the Aztecs was quite complex. At the origins of the pantheon were the ancestors - creator god ome teku aphid and his divine wife. Among the acting main deity was the god of the sun and war Huitzilopochtli. War was a form of worship for this god and was elevated to a cult. A special place was occupied by the god Sinteobl, the patron saint of corn fertility. The protector of the priests was the Lord Quetzalcoatl.

The god of trade and the patron of merchants was Yakatekuhali. In fact, there were many gods. Suffice it to say that every month and every day of the year had its own god.

developed very successfully . It was based on philosophy, which was practiced by sages who were highly respected. The leading science was astronomy. Aztec astrologers freely navigated in the starry picture of the sky. Satisfying needs Agriculture, they have developed a fairly accurate calendar. taking into account the position and movement of stars in the sky.

The Aztecs created a highly developed artistic culture. Among the arts, significant success has been achieved literature. Aztec writers created didactic treatises, dramatic and prose works. The leading position was occupied by poetry, which included several genres: military poems, poems about flowers, spring songs. The greatest success enjoyed religious verses and hymns, which were sung in honor of the main gods of the Aztecs.

No less successfully developed architecture. In addition to the beautiful ensembles and palaces of the capital already mentioned above, magnificent architectural monuments were created in other cities. However, almost all of them were destroyed by the Spanish conquistadors. Among the amazing creations is the recently discovered temple at Malinalco. This temple, which had the shape of a traditional Aztec pyramid, is notable for that. that all of it was carved right into the rock. Considering that the Aztecs used only stone tools, one can imagine what gigantic efforts the construction of this temple required.

In the 1980s, as a result of earthquakes, earthworks and excavations in the very center of Mexico City, the main temple of the Aztecs was opened - Templo Mayor. The sanctuaries of the main god Huitzilopochtli and the god of water and rain, the patron of agriculture Tlaloc were also opened. Remains of wall paintings, samples of stone sculpture were found. Among those found, a round stone with a diameter of more than 3 m with a bas-relief image of the goddess Koyol-shaukhka, the sister of Huitzilopochtli, stands out. Stone figurines of gods, corals, shells, pottery, necklaces, etc. have been preserved in deep hiding places.

The Aztec culture and civilization reached its peak at the beginning of the 16th century. However, this flowering was soon put to an end. The Spaniards captured Tenochti Glan in 1521. The city was destroyed and a new town- Mexico City, which became the center of the colonial possessions of the European conquerors.

Mayan civilization

Maya culture and civilization became another amazing phenomenon pre-Columbian America, which existed in the I-XV centuries. AD in southeastern Mexico, Honduras and Guatemala. A modern researcher of this region, G. Leman, called the Maya "the most fascinating of all the civilizations of ancient America."

Indeed, everything related to the Maya is shrouded in mystery and mystery. Their origin remains a mystery. The mystery is their choice of place of settlement - the impenetrable jungle of Mexico. At the same time, the ups and downs in their subsequent development are both a mystery and a miracle.

In the classical period (I-IX centuries AD), the development of Maya civilization and culture is on a steep upward trend. Already in the first centuries of our era, they reach the highest level and amazing perfection in architecture, sculpture and painting. The emerging large and populous cities become centers of handicraft production, marked by a real flourishing of painted ceramics. At this time, the Maya create the only developed civilization in America. hieroglyphic writing, as evidenced by the inscriptions on steles, reliefs, small plastic items. The Maya compiled an accurate solar calendar and successfully predicted solar and lunar eclipses.

The main view of the monumental architecture there was a pyramidal temple, installed on a high pyramid - up to 70 m. Considering that the entire building was erected on high pyramidal hills, one can imagine how majestic and grandiose the whole structure looks. This is how the Temple of the Inscriptions in Palenque appears, which served as the tomb of the ruler like the pyramids ancient egypt. The entire building was covered with hieroglyphic relief inscriptions that adorn the walls, the crypt, the lid of the sarcophagus and other objects. A steep staircase with several platforms leads to the temple. In the city there are three more pyramids with temples of the Sun, the Cross and the Leafy Cross, as well as a palace with a five-story square tower, which apparently served as an observatory: on the top floor, a stone bench was preserved, on which the astrologer sat, peering into the distant sky. The walls of the palace are also decorated with reliefs depicting prisoners of war.

In the VI-IX centuries. achieve the highest success monumental sculpture and Maya painting. The sculptural schools of Palenque, Copan and other cities achieve rare skill and subtlety in conveying the naturalness of the poses and movements of the depicted characters, which are usually rulers, dignitaries and warriors. Small plastic art is also distinguished by amazing craftsmanship - especially small figurines.

The surviving examples of Mayan painting amaze with the elegance of the pattern and the richness of color. The famous frescoes of Bonampak are recognized masterpieces of pictorial art. They tell about military battles, depict solemn ceremonies, complex sacrificial rituals, graceful dances, etc.

In the 1X-X centuries. most of the Mayan cities were destroyed by the invading Toltec tribes, but in the XI century. Mayan culture re-emerged in the Yucatan Peninsula and in the mountains of Guatemala. Its main centers are the cities of Chichen Itza, Uxmal and Mayapan.

The most successful is still developing architecture. One of the great architectural monuments The postclassical period is the pyramid of Kukulkan - the "Feathered Serpent" in Chichen Itza. Four staircases lead to the top of the nine-step pyramid, where the temple is located, bordered by a balustrade, which starts at the bottom with a beautifully executed snake head and continues in the form of a snake body to the upper floor. The pyramid symbolizes the calendar, because the 365 steps of its stairs correspond to the number of days in a year. It is also notable for the fact that inside it there is another nine-step pyramid, in which there is a sanctuary, and in it is an amazing stone throne depicting a jaguar.

The pyramid "Temple of the Magician" in Uxmal is also very original. It differs from all others in that it has an oval shape in horizontal projection.

By the middle of the XV century. Maya culture enters into a severe crisis and declines. When the Spanish conquerors entered at the beginning of the XVI century. to the Mayan cities, many of them were abandoned by their inhabitants. The reasons for such an unexpected and sad ending to a flourishing culture and civilization remain a mystery.

Ancient Civilizations of South America. Inca culture

In South America, almost simultaneously with the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica, at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, in the mountains of the northeastern region of Peru, an equally mysterious chavin culture, similar to the Olmec, although not related to it.

At the turn of our era in the northern part of the coastal zone of Peru appears Mochica Civilization, and in the south Nazca civilization. Somewhat later, in the mountains of northern Bolivia, an original Tiahuanaco culture. These civilizations South America in some respects they were inferior to the Mesoamsric cultures: they did not have hieroglyphic writing, an accurate calendar, etc. But in many other ways, especially in technology - they outnumbered Mesoamerica. Already from the II millennium BC. The Indians of Peru and Bolivia smelted metals, processed gold, silver, copper and their alloys, and made of them not only beautiful decorations, but also tools of labor - shovels and hoes. They had developed agriculture, built magnificent temples, created monumental sculptures, and made beautiful ceramic products with polychrome painting. Their fine fabrics made of cotton and wool became widely known. In the 1st millennium AD the production of metal products, ceramics and fabrics has reached large sizes and a high level, and it was this that constituted the unique originality of the South American civilizations of the classical period.

The postclassic period (X-XVI centuries AD) is marked by the emergence and disappearance of many states both in the mountainous and coastal zones of South America. In the XIV century. The Incas create the state of Tahuatin-suyu in the mountainous zone, which, after long wars with neighboring small states, manages to emerge victorious and subjugate all the others.

In the XV century. it turns to the gigantic and famous Inca Empire with a vast territory and a population of about 6 million people. At the head of a huge power was a divine ruler, the son of the Sun Inca, who relied on a hereditary aristocracy and a caste of priests.

basis economy was agriculture, the main crops of which were corn, potatoes, beans, red pepper. The state of the Incas was distinguished by the effective organization of public works, called "mita". Mita meant the obligation of all subjects of the empire to work one month a year on the construction of state facilities. It allowed tens of thousands of people to gather in one place, thanks to which irrigation canals, fortresses, roads, bridges, etc. were built in a short time.

From north to south, the Inca Country is crossed by two paraplegic roads. one of which had a length of more than 5 thousand km. These highways were connected to each other by a large number of transverse roads, which created an excellent network of communications. Along the roads at certain distances there were post stations, warehouses with products and necessary materials. There was a state post office in Gauatinsuyu.

Spiritual and religious life and matters of worship were in the hands of the priests. considered the supreme deity Viracocha - Creator of the world and other gods. Other deities were the golden sun god Inti. god of weather, thunder and lightning Ilpa. A special place was occupied by the ancient cults of the mother of the Earth Mama Pacha and the mother of the sea Mama (Sochi. The worship of the gods took place in stone temples decorated with gold inside.

It regulated all aspects of life, including the personal life of the citizens of the empire. All Incas up to a certain age had to marry. If this did not happen, then this issue was decided by the state official at his own discretion, and his decision was binding.

Although the Incas did not have a real written language, this did not prevent them from creating beautiful myths, legends, epic poems, religious hymns, as well as dramatic works. Unfortunately, little of this spiritual wealth has been preserved.

of the highest flourishing culture the Incas reached at the beginning XVI V. However, this prosperity did not last long. In 1532, the most powerful empire of pre-Columbian America submitted to the Europeans almost without resistance. A small group of Spanish conquerors led by Francisco Pizarro managed to kill Inca Atahualpa, which paralyzed the will to resist his people, and great empire The Incas ceased to exist.

The Incas, Aztecs and Maya are mysterious tribes that have disappeared from the face of the earth. Until now, scientific excavations and all kinds of research are being carried out in order to study their life and the reasons for their disappearance. In this article we will talk about one interesting tribe. The Aztecs lived in the 14th century in what is now Mexico City.

Where did they come from

The number of this Indian people was about 1.3 million people. The homeland of the Aztecs, according to legend, was the island of Aztlan (translated as "country of herons"). Initially, the members of this tribe were hunters, but then, having settled on the ground, they began to engage in agricultural and handicraft work, although it was a rather warlike tribe. The Aztecs, in order to start leading for quite a long time, were looking for suitable lands. They did not act at random, but in accordance with the instructions of their god Huitzilopochtli. In his opinion, the Aztecs should have seen an eagle sitting on a cactus and devouring the earth.

This happened

Despite the strangeness of this sign, after 165 years of wandering around Mexican soil, the Aztecs still managed to meet this mysterious bird with unusual behavior. At the place where this happened, the tribe began to settle down. The Aztecs named their first settlement Tenochtitlan (translated as "fruit tree growing from stone"). Another name for these lands is Mexico City. Interestingly, the Aztec civilization was created by several tribes. Scientists believe that at least seven tribes who spoke related languages ​​took part in this, the most common of which was Nahuatl. Now it and similar dialects are spoken by more than 1 million people.

Bottoms and tops

Can the Aztec civilization serve as an example for the modern organization of society? Equality fighters would certainly not like the Aztec division into aristocrats and plebeians. Moreover, members of high society possessed all the best. They lived in luxurious palaces, wore magnificent clothes, ate delicious food, had many privileges, occupied high positions. The plebeians worked the land, traded, hunted, fished and lived poorly in special quarters. But after death, everyone got an equal chance to get into the underworld, the abode of the goddess of death Miktlan, or go to better world. Since warriors in the Aztec world enjoyed special respect, those who died on the battlefield could accompany the sun from sunrise to zenith, as well as those who were sacrificed. Women who died in childbirth received the honor to accompany the sun from zenith to sunset. "Lucky" can be considered those who were killed by lightning or drowned. They ended up in a heavenly place where Tlalocan lived.

Fathers and Sons

The tribe referred to in this article paid great attention to the education of children. Until the age of 1, they were brought up at home, and after that they had to attend special schools. Moreover, both boys and girls, although the latter, most often, having married, sat at home and looked after the household and children. Commoners were trained in craft skills, military affairs. Aristocrats studied history, astronomy, social science, rituals, and government. The children of members of high society were not white-handed. They worked for public works, cleaned in temples, participated in rituals. Honor, respect and various privileges awaited the elderly.

Aztec culture

No wonder this lost civilization attracts attention today. The Aztecs were excellent craftsmen, so buildings, sculptures, stone and clay products, fabrics, and jewelry were of high quality. The Aztecs were especially distinguished by the ability to make a variety of products from the bright feathers of tropical birds. Aztec mosaics and ornaments are also famous. The aristocrats were fond of literature. Many of them could compose a poem or write an oral work. Legends, tales, poems, descriptions of the rites of this people have survived to this day. Paper for books was made from the bark. The calendars that this tribe created are also interesting. The Aztecs used a solar and ritual calendar. In accordance with the solar calendar, agricultural work and religious work were carried out. It consisted of 365 days. The second calendar, which includes 260 days, served for predictions. The fate of a person was judged by the day on which he was born. Until now, many treasure hunters dream of finding Aztec gold. And they lived in their time very richly. This is evidenced by the stories of the Spanish conquerors. They say that the rich Aztecs, especially in the capital Tenochtitlan, ate and slept on gold. Golden thrones were set up for their gods, at the foot of which there were also golden ingots.

Aztec religion

People from this tribe believed that there were several gods who controlled the forces of nature and the fate of people. They had gods of water, maize, rain, sun, war and many others. The Aztecs built huge, ornate temples. The largest was dedicated to the main deity Tenochtitlan and was 46 meters high. Rites and sacrifices were held in the temples. The Aztecs also had an idea of ​​the soul. They believed that its habitat in a person is the heart and blood vessels. The pulse beat was taken as its manifestation. According to the Aztecs, the gods put the soul into the human body even at the time when he was in the womb. They also believed that objects and animals possess souls. The Aztecs imagined that there was a special connection between them, allowing them to interact on an intangible level. The Aztecs also thought that every person has a magical double. His death led to the death of man. As a sacrifice, the Aztecs offered their own blood to their idols. To do this, they performed the rite of bloodletting. In general, the Aztecs brought human sacrifices in huge quantities. It is a known fact that 2,000 people were sacrificed during the consecration of the Great Temple. The Aztecs thought about the end of the world and believed that a large number of blood is able to appease the gods and maintain world balance.

The Aztec civilization perished because of the greed of the Spaniards. It happened at the beginning of the 16th century, but the imagination is still excited by the life story of a tribe that disappeared from the face of the earth. Whether Aztec gold brings happiness, everyone will decide for themselves.

The Maya is a Central American civilization known for its writing, art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomical systems. It began to form in the preclassical era (2000 BC - 250 AD), most of its cities reached their peak in the classical period (250 AD - 900 AD). It continued to exist until the arrival of the conquistadors.

Pyramid Of The Magician With Bougainvillea, Uxmal

The Maya built stone cities, many of which were abandoned long before the arrival of Europeans, others were inhabited after. The calendar developed by the Maya was used by other peoples of Central America. The hieroglyphic writing system, partially deciphered, was used.
A significant contribution was made by our compatriot, Yuri Valentinovich Knorozov, whose first publications on this topic appeared in the early 1950s. Numerous inscriptions on the monuments have been preserved. They created an efficient system of agriculture, had deep knowledge in the field of astronomy.

Face Sculpture On El Caracol, Chichen Itza

The descendants of the ancient Maya are not only the modern Mayan peoples, who have preserved the language of their ancestors, but also part of the Spanish-speaking population of the southern states of Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras. Some Mayan cities are included in the list of UNESCO sites world heritage: Palenque, Chichen Itza, Uxmal in Mexico, Tikal and Quirigua in Guatemala, Copan in Honduras, Joya de Seren in El Salvador - a small Mayan village that was buried under volcanic ash and is now excavated.

Temple Of Foliated Cross, 892 AD, Palenque

The Maya believed that the universe was made up of 13 heavens and 9 underworlds. In the center of the earth was a tree that passed through all the heavenly spheres. On each of the four sides of the earth there was another tree, symbolizing the countries of the world - the east corresponded to a mahogany, to the south - yellow, to the west - black and to the north - white. Each side of the world had several gods (wind, rain and heaven holders), who had the corresponding color. One of the important gods of the Maya of the classical period was the god of corn, represented in the guise of a young man with a high headdress.

Thousand Columns, Chichen Itza

To calculate the time, the Maya used a complex calendar system that included several cycles. One of them represented a combination of numbers from 1 to 13 ("week") and 20 "months", which had their own names. There was also a solar calendar in use with a year of 365 days. It consisted of 18 months of 20 days and five "extra" or "unlucky" days. In addition, the Maya used the so-called long account, which, in addition to the 20-day month and 18-month year, took into account a 20-year period (katun); a period of 20 katuns (baktun) and so on. There were other ways of dating. All these ways have changed over time, which makes it much more difficult to correlate the dates recorded by the Maya with European chronology.

Chac Mool With Columns In Temple Of Warriors, Chichen Itza

The Mayan calendar predicts the end of the world.
We are talking about a calendar called "Tzolkin", which served for ritual rites. According to this calendar, on December 21, 2012, an event comparable to the end of the world should occur. It consists in the fact that during the winter solstice, the Sun will move into the sphere milky way and will stand on the same line with the Earth and the center of the Galaxy. Powerful flashes will occur on it, from which plasma flows will spread over great distances, reaching even the Earth. As a result, the entire energy system of our planet will be put out of action, which means that many millions of living beings will die.

Apparently, it was this global event that the Mayans considered commensurate with the end of the world. On the basis of what the ancient astronomers made such conclusions - we can only guess. But it is on this date - December 21, 2012 - that the Mayan calendar ends.

Historical Architectural Scene

It is possible that the end date of the Mayan calendar simply means the end of their cycle of reckoning, after which the next cycle will begin. Or maybe they meant historical changes, a new era in the history of our Earth, associated with the need to change views on life values ​​and with the spiritual insight of earthlings.

Temple Of The Warriors With Thousand Columns, Chichen Itza

Ancient Site Of Monte Alban, Near Oaxaca

The Aztecs are an Indian people in central Mexico. Over 1.5 million people. The Aztec civilization (XIV-XVI centuries) had a rich mythology and cultural heritage. The capital of the Aztec empire was the city of Tenochtitlan, located on Lake Texcoco (Texcoco) (Spanish: Texcoco),
where Mexico City is now located.

In the Nahuatl language, the native language of the Aztecs, the word "Aztec" literally means "someone from Aztlan", a mythical place located somewhere in the north. The modern use of the word "Aztec" as a term for peoples connected by trade, customs, religion and language was proposed by Alexander von Humboldt (Alexander von Humboldt) and borrowed by Mexican scholars of the 19th century as a means of distinguishing contemporary Mexicans from the indigenous Indian population. themselves
the Aztecs called themselves "mexica", or "tenochka" and "tlaltelolca" - depending on the city of origin (Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco). As for the origin of the word “mexica” (ast. mexica, from which, in fact, the word “Mexico” comes from), very different versions of its etymology are expressed: the word “Sun” in the Nahuatl language, the name of the Aztec leader Meshitli (Mexitli, Mextli) , a type of algae native to Lake Texcoco. The most famous translator from the Nahuatl language, Miguel León-Portilla (Spanish: Miguel León-Portilla), claims that this word means "middle of the moon" - from the words metztli (Mekstli, Metztli, Meshtli, Metchtli - Moon) and xictli (middle) . self-name
"tenochki" possibly comes from the name of Tenoch - another legendary leader.

Avenue Of The Dead, Teotihuacan

Ball Court From Archeological Zone Of Monte Alban

Beach View Of Mayan Ruins, Tulum

Chac Long Nosed Rain God On Temple Of Warriors

Detail of Wall of Skulls-Tzompantli, Chichen Itza

El Caracol-The Snail

El Castillo-The Castle, Chichen Itza

Entry Door In Mayan Ruins, Uxmal

Governor's Palace At Mayan Ruins, Uxmal

Intertwined Serpents In Relief, Cholula

Monte Alban, 1500 BC-750 AD

Nunnery Quadrangle, Uxmal

Overview Of Pyramid Of The Moon And Pyramid Of The Sun

Palace-7th Century Mayan Ruins, Palenque

Pyramid Of The Sun At Teotihuacan Ruins, Near Mexico City

Rattlesnake Sculpture On Nunnery, Uxmal

Temple Of Sun, 692 AD, Palenque

Temple Of The Jaguars, Chichen Itza.

Templo Mayor, Mexico City

Viking Group At Teotihuacan
© Corel Photo: Mayan & Aztec Ruins

Most famous civilizations of ancient America that every educated person has heard of are the Maya, the Incas, and the Aztecs. These peoples inhabited the territories of central Mexico (Aztecs), southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, the western part of Honduras (Maya) and the west of South (Inca). grandiose architectural structures these ancient civilizations have survived to our times. The most famous of them are the pyramids of the American Maya and Aztec tribes. The Incas, according to scientists, did not build pyramids, although they were able to build structures of quite impressive size (such as the Sacsayhuaman fortress).

The Mayan and Aztec peoples inhabited America at different times. The Mayan civilization flourished in the 7th - 8th centuries, and the Aztecs - in the 14th - 15th centuries. But both of these peoples were distinguished by a high level of development. They were building big cities, used writing, shipping was developed. The calendars of those times surprise with their accuracy. Religion occupied a special place among the Mayan and Aztec peoples. No wonder the pyramids that they erected were used for various religious rites.

The exact age of the Mayan pyramids is unknown. These structures are made of roughly hewn stones, which are fastened with a fairly strong mortar.

The slopes of the pyramids are steps, i.e. they were built in stages - on each platform the next, smaller area was erected. This process was quite lengthy.

One of the most famous pyramids Kukulkan, named after the main god in the mythologies of the Mayan and Toltec tribes, who was depicted as a snake with a human head. It is located in the ancient city of Chichen Itza (Yucatan Peninsula). This structure is 25 meters high and has 9 platforms. The number 9 is not accidental, it symbolizes the realm of the dead. The temple crowns the pyramid. There are wide staircases on four sides, each of them has 91 steps, in total - 364, which corresponds to the number of days in a year. The stairs themselves are divided into 18 spans - in the calendar of the Mayan tribes, there were just such a number of months. The pyramid of Kukulkan has four sides clearly facing south, north, west and east.

This pyramid is very popular with tourists. The thing is that twice a year a very unusual phenomenon can be observed on its surface. On the days of the equinox at 17:00, a huge image of a snake begins to appear on the northern side of the pyramid, becoming more and more clear. This effect is achieved by sunlight, and the illusion lasts for about 3 hours.

In the city of Chichen Itza, another pyramid was built, the base of which has dimensions of 40 x 40 meters.

Another famous structure of the Mayan tribes - . It is located on the territory ancient city Palenque, in Guatemala. The pyramid got its name because of the huge number of different drawings and hieroglyphs. Scientists are still trying to unravel the meaning of these inscriptions. Only in this pyramid was a tomb with a sarcophagus discovered, the surface of which was also covered with drawings and inscriptions. Prior to this discovery, it was believed that the Maya did not use pyramids for burial. In the sarcophagus were found the remains of a man who, apparently, occupied a high position in society.

On the Yucatan Peninsula there is another ancient city - Uxmal. It is there that the famous . This is one of the most impressive buildings that we have inherited from the Mayan tribes. The pyramid is 38 m high and has a flat top. Her corners are rounded. This building has been built over many years. Archaeological research has shown that construction lasted from the sixth to the tenth centuries. Inside the pyramid there are 5 temples - according to the number of stages of construction.

The most famous Aztec pyramids

Perhaps the most impressive structure of the Aztecs - pyramid of the sun, located on the site of the ancient city of Teotihuacan, not far from modern Mexico City. It ranks third in the world among ancient structures, only passing ahead of the pyramid of Cholula, from the time of the Toltecs, and the pyramid of Cheops, which is located in Egypt, near Cairo.

The Pyramid of the Sun used to rise up to 71 m (currently - 64.5 m), and the perimeter of the base of this grandiose structure is 893 m. It took about 3 million tons of stones to build it. 300 years after the pyramid was built, a temple was placed on its top, which was destroyed even before the discovery of the city of Teotihuacan by the Spanish conquerors. Currently, many tourists visit the Pyramid of the Sun. To climb to the very top, you have to overcome the most difficult climb of 248 steps, which are distinguished by their steepness. But despite all the difficulties, there are many who want to climb to the very top. After all, if you believe the legends, it is there that the so-called “place of power” is located. Thanks to positive energy flows, a person can find harmony and peace of mind.

In the north of Teotihuacan is . This is smaller than the Pyramid of the Sun - its height is 42 m. This five-tiered pyramid is located on a small hill. A fairly wide staircase leads to the top - it is a continuation of the path, which was called the Road of the Dead. During archaeological excavations in the Pyramid of the Moon, many remains and burials were discovered. Presumably, various rituals were performed on top of this structure.

The Citadel is located in Teotihuacan, a square that got its name from the Spaniards. It is here that the Temple of the Feathered Serpent is located - a building built in the form of a pyramid. Its walls were decorated with stone ornaments, which were the heads of feathered snakes - from the western part they are well preserved to this day. Within the walls of this temple were found the remains of animals that were sacrificed during rituals.

The pyramids of the American Mayan and Aztec tribes have not yet been fully studied. The mysteries associated with these structures will attract scientists from all over the world for a long time to come.