Cities made of clay bricks. Famous clay fortresses

People's Master of Belarus Dmitry Viktorovich POLESCHUK traveled to many cities and villages with his “festival” pottery machine - very mobile due to the disassembly of the main wooden parts. The potter's clay products have delighted many with their beauty and functionality.

It has long been an axiom in our country that it is not the gods who fire the pots, which means that it is quite possible to make the pottery machine itself with your own hands.

Potter's wheel

It consists of a frame with a table (which also serves as a bench), an axis, a flywheel, and a working disk. The sizes of the components are arbitrary, but they certainly need to be adjusted to your height. The main thing is that the working disk should be at the level of the lower back (when you are in a sitting position) and not very high, so that your arms do not get tired.

We knock the flywheel out of thick boards, which we then fold in two layers(photo 1). The axis of the square section is narrowed upward(photo 2), at the level of the desktop we make a circular section. Top and bottom - metal pins(photo 3).

We cut out a part in the table that is held on pins during operation.(photo 4)and serves to hold the axle. Important: do not forget to make semicircular holes for the axis in the table and the cut part. We place the axle with the flywheel on a bushing in the frame(photo 5)and press it at the top so that it can rotate. For reliability, we wrap the cutting part to the table with a rope. Next, we put the working disk on the metal pin(photo 6).

You can sit down on a bench and start “sculpting” by turning the “pedals”, that is, the flywheel, which it is advisable to weigh down with cobblestones!

Pottery

For work, it is better to take clay purified from impurities (vacuumed).

To make a bun (photo 7)did not run away from you at the initial stage, with some force we throw it into the center of the disk - this is the installation and centering of the lump. Squeezing with hands(photo 8).

For better gliding, spray clay water and turn the bun into a smoothed dome(photo 9). We press the clay from above with our thumbs, and from the sides with our palms. At the same time, the mass is additionally crushed and completely unnecessary air bubbles disappear.

When rotating the disk, press your thumb into the intended center of the dome, marking the bottom.

Then we raise the cylinder to the height of the future product(photo 10, 11). We remember to lubricate the inside with water, but without making the clay soggy. Using the fingers of your left hand, we press through the inner cavity, and with your right hand, we hold the shape while rotating.

We have reached the desired height, and then the pot is formed in several stages. Lightly press out the rounded sides from the inside, holding them from the outside. Using a quadrangular wooden knife called a "shinal"(photo 12), “grow” the neck of the vessel(photo 13).

We separate the finished product from the disk with a thin rope or wire(photo 14).

We dry it for 2-3 days, and then fire it in a pottery kiln (today this service is provided by some art workshops, educational institutions, etc. - editor's note).

If the “formation” of the vessel has taken place, then you can also become a specialist in pottery, says Dmitry Poleshchuk. All that remains is to learn how to make lids for vessels and master more complex forms of craftsmanshipThe clay must be plastic, capable of taking any shape and retaining it after burning. I use two types of clay: continental and quarry. When mixed in a 1:2 ratio, they form the desired homogeneous mass, which has the properties of a strong pottery and fire-resistant properties.

Continental clay is mined in wells with a diameter of 1-1.5 meters. The adit is lined with willow to avoid soil shedding. You have to dig deep. The clay of the original deposit usually lies at a depth of 10-15 meters.

Continental clay is formed where rocks have been washed away by water. Therefore, it is pure, without impurities, white or almost white, fire-resistant. It is precisely this layer of clay (1 meter or more thick) at a depth of 12 meters that lies in my grandfather’s mines. Its development led to the fact that the sleeves of home-made mines stretched horizontally from the well for many tens of meters.

Chasyarska clay (Donetsk region) is the best for pottery production.

Quarry clay can be found in Yaruga, along the slopes of river banks. This is the so-called sedimentary clay. It is not so pure, with various additives that give it different colors, and less fire-resistant. The main thing is to pay attention to the plasticity of the clay, i.e. its ability to change shape without tears or cracks. It can be oil (or plastic) and song (or low-plastic). Oily - difficult to soak, dries slowly, forms a sticky mass. Lenten clay, on the contrary, is easy to soak, dries quickly, and forms a mass that is not very suitable for squeakers.

Based on my own experience, I will say: once excavated, the clay is of little use for work. It is also not plastic enough; it often has various impurities (small pebbles), which lead to the destruction of products, as they expand during firing, while the clay itself contracts. I’ll tell you below how to choose junk from clay. Feldspar, quartz, lime (they will be used to make glaze) also cannot be used immediately: they must be cleaned of impurities, sub-nitrates, sifted and washed. This is labor-intensive, monotonous work, but it is necessary so that later there will be less waste. The clay mass itself must also be homogeneous, otherwise, during burning, part of it will react differently to temperature. And this often results in distortions, cracks and tears. That is why the initial raw materials need to be refined. The clay must be soaked overnight in a special pit or bath. These clay mixtures are shaded to the bottom with a stick so that the formed holes are filled with water. And in the morning we begin to prepare the clay for work.

We select soaked clay from the bath onto the plank platform. If there is no platform, then it can be replaced with a sheet of rows. We take as much clay as we need for the job. We put it in a large cone-shaped pile. Then the wooden Dovbnya gradually breaks the cone. When the clay has risen and its thickness is approximately 5-10 centimeters, the operation should be repeated, i.e. form again the same mass as it was before. It breaks it into a layer, which should already be a little thicker than the previous one (i.e. 10-15 centimeters). This beating of clay lasts until all the clay is quivering and that same high cone appears in front of you again.

To prevent the clay from sticking to Dovbnya, it must be cycled. But it is most effective to moisten Dovbnya more often. And so that the clay would NOT stick to the platform, my grandfather crushed it with ashes, which was enough in the forge. (Photo - manual method of selecting excess)

In the clay that we just knocked down, it is possible that chips, leaves, roots, worms, and limestone stones are being caught. In order for the mass to be suitable for work, it is necessary to separate this trash from it as thoroughly as possible.

This is what the planer is used for. They need to plan the whole pile of clay into small chips, while selecting out the impurities. Then the planed and selected clay is rolled into a large bullet and moisturizes it. We select the amount necessary for work in order to begin expelling air bubbles from the clay mass, and cover the remaining clay with wet rows or rags, take it to a cool corner of the workshop or put it in the bath. (Photo-viganization of air bubbles using the rocking method)

Air is released, which will then interfere with working on the potter's wheel, in two ways - swinging and knocking out. Small clay pieces (the same as those used by the housewife who prepares the dough for dumplings) are rolled on a circle. At the same time, air escapes from the clay mass and it becomes solid.

Let me explain the knockout method. If you need a little more clay than to make one small product, then it is convenient to mix it on the table. To do this, take a piece of clay dough and forcefully throw it onto the workbenches from the height of an arm extended above your head. Then it is formed into a loaf and cut into two parts with string or brass wire.

After this, the top piece is placed on the table with the cut side up, and the bottom piece, without turning over, is thrown with force onto the previous top one. A cut is made again at a right angle to the table, one of the pieces is also thrown with the cut side up, and the second one is thrown onto it, also cut side up. So the operation is repeated about twenty times.

I would like to end this section with a story about how premium clay is prepared, precisely the clay that is used for high-quality pottery.

My grandfather laid out the clay he brought on the ground in beds and left it in this form for a year or several years (the longer, the better). This natural way of processing by potters is called Lituvannyam. For products of the highest quality, the poured clay is further subjected to torment, purulence and kneading.

To get rid of the clay, pound it in a large bowl of water and let it settle so that coarse, heavy impurities settle. Transfer the cream and clay into another tub and let it settle again. Then to the third and fourth. In the last reservoir, the clay particles are the lightest, smallest and purest, they are allowed to settle, the water is released, and the finest, purest clay of the highest grade remains at the bottom, it is placed in the cellar, where it festers for several weeks: it becomes covered with dark spots, emits an unpleasant odor . After purging, the clay becomes plastic and homogeneous, suitable for the most delicate work. Since the top layers dry faster, knead the clay on a special bench before use. There is a fairly diverse technology for preparing clay. While we are learning, clay can be laid on the lithuvannya. And for the first work, a homogeneous mass is quite suitable, which can be obtained by soaking and mixing continents and quarry clays, which have been mixed several times with a manual clay grinder.

There is an old method of knocking air bubbles out of clay balls. Clay, kneaded on a hand clay ball, rolled into a ball and cut with a string into the required pieces for work. A separate lump is taken in the left hand. They slap it with the palm of their right hand, knocking out the air. And with your left hand, continuously spin the ball, holding it in a hanging position. This work is tedious, and therefore the lump must be cut so that it is easy to lift. But its size also depends on the pottery product for which it is intended. For training and until your hands are stronger, I advise you to prepare balls (breasts) weighing about 500-600 grams. (From the book by V. Ristsov “At the Potter’s Wheel”)

At the end of last year, an exhibition of English ceramist J. Powell took place in Moscow. Vases, jugs, sconces, floor lamps, chandeliers, family coats of arms amazed connoisseurs with their sophistication, beauty, high artistic taste and subtle knowledge of the material. The unusual technique was especially noted. As we learned, Powell does not work on a special machine, but uses embossed materials, for example, gauze, fine rope mesh, or even coarse burlap. Therefore, we invite you to get to know her.

Let's start with clay. You can find it right at your summer cottage or in the nearest quarry.

Take a 0.5 liter piece of clay. Add a little water to it and stir until it absorbs all the moisture and begins to stick to your hands. Having prepared the stiff dough, roll it into a ball with a diameter of 50 mm and a flat cake with a diameter of 100 mm. Then dry in the shade for two to three days. If cracks appear on the ball or cake during this time, it means that the clay is too oily and requires the addition of fine river sand. But there are no cracks, and a ball thrown from a height of 1 m onto a hard surface does not crumble - the clay is normal. Skinny clay does not crack when dried, and a product made from it will not acquire the proper strength; In such clay it is necessary to mix more fatty clay. Add sand or clay in several stages, each time checking the quality of the resulting mass.

Further work with clay raw materials is carried out as Powell himself does. Take a sheet of thick plywood or plastic with dimensions of 500 x 375 mm. Cover it with a piece of fabric measuring 950 x 620 mm.

Place two wooden slats on it, 350 mm long and 10x10 mm in cross-section, as shown in Figure 1. Place a piece of clay between them and use a wooden rolling pin to roll it into a pancake 10 mm thick (Figure 2). Let us immediately note that as a result of this operation, the lower surface of the clay pancake will acquire the texture of fabric. Next, use a sharp knife to carefully cut out the workpiece, as shown in Figure 3. Roll the scraps into a ball and put them in an enamel pan or plastic bag so that they dry out less. Take the fabric with the workpiece by the corners (Fig. 4), tie them with knots and hang them on the frame (Fig. 5). In this position, the clay blank will take on a concave shape. Leave it for two to three days so that the clay dries a little and hardens. Having taken out the workpiece, trim the edges with a sharp knife, as shown in Figure 6. All that remains is to install it on the legs. Prepare three conical supports from clay dough in advance. Apply deep marks to the mating surfaces with the tip of a knife, moisten them with water and press the parts tightly together (Fig. 7 and 8).

Products of more complex shapes can be easily made on a four-wall wooden box without a lid (Fig. 9) and the same box, but with a lid (Fig. 11), in which slots of different types are provided (Fig. 12). The further steps required to obtain the blanks are not difficult to understand by looking at the remaining drawings.

Not everything may work out on the first try. But here you have several products that suit you with their design and beauty of execution. What's next?

Firing is a complex process that will give the product the necessary strength. It is carried out in three stages: warming up, firing itself and gradual, controlled cooling. At the first stage, the process can be carried out in an ordinary kitchen stove at 250 ° C. In this case, the clay crystals are destroyed and the entire mass turns into an amorphous state. At a higher temperature (the process is carried out in a muffle furnace at 850° C), the mass is sintered to form a durable shard.

After firing, the products are cooled. This process is very long and responsible. A freshly fired product does not tolerate sudden changes in temperature and access to cold air. Let us allow this, and cracks will instantly form. The temperature should be reduced slowly, depending on the wall thickness of the product and the quality of the raw materials. Therefore, the cooling mode is determined experimentally. But usually ceramists reduce the temperature at the rate of 50° per hour. After firing, the product acquires a bright red color. This color can be considered the final color. But it is better, according to Powell, to paint the product on the outside or inside in a different color, for example, black, blue or white. It is easier to paint with bright nitro enamels.

Printing inks are produced in paint rollers. Initially, by passing the paint through rollers, the paint is first mixed with the solvent using a spatula by hand, and to obtain a homogeneous mixture, it is passed through the rollers twice.
The paint used for painting using the printing method, with the required viscosity, must be easily removed from the iron board or shaft and transfer perfectly from the paper to the products being painted, without bleeding onto them. At the same time, it does not have to dry very quickly and give a clear and high-quality contour.

For underglaze printing, paints of approximately the following composition (in%) are used:
Glycerin 19
Molasses 23
Dry paint 58

For overglaze printing:
Drying oil 42.35
Dry paint 57.65

When painting ceramic products using the printing method, the master engraver, according to a given design, cuts out an exact copy of the design on a metal drum or board. The depth of the cut lines of the design on the drum or board depends on the intensity of the paint in the corresponding places on the original. The design on the metal is cut out using a special cutter (gravel tip).

Paint is applied to the board using wooden spatulas, and on drums using special devices. Excess paint is removed.
A special thin, slightly moistened paper is applied to the board with paint applied to it, on top of which a layer of newspaper type paper 5-6 mm thick is placed, and on top is a tarpaulin pad, after which the board is passed between rollers or placed under a press.

The paper with the design imprinted on it is dipped into the water in which it is located until softened.

After the paper is saturated with water, the design and paper are applied to a dry product and wiped with a felt roller; the paint adheres well to the surface of the product, and the paper is easily separated from the design. To enrich the design applied by printing, additional coloring is done with paints or gold.

Unlike screen printing, tampon printing began to develop intensively only with the advent of the ability to make printing clichés from high-quality silicone rubber. Tampon printing is a method of transferring an image from a printing plate (cliché) to a printed hard surface using an elastic-elastic tampon.

Pad printing technology is based on transferring ink using a cliche through an elastic silicone pad that follows the curvature of the surface. Due to the low wettability coefficient inherent in silicone, the tampon “repels” many liquids, including paint, and when the tampon comes into contact with other objects, it easily transfers paint to these objects.

Tampon printing allows you to apply an image to almost any type of hard surface (smooth, corrugated materials that do not absorb paint) - plastic, glass, wood, metal. Typically, using pad printing, logos or images are applied to small souvenir products: pens, lighters, key rings, watches, calculators, mugs, ashtrays, key holders, bottle openers, plastic coasters or similar products made of plastic, leather and polyethylene, as well as on bottle caps , lids of jars, disposable tableware, perfume packaging, various office supplies (mechanical pencils, rulers, knives, business card holders and much more), audio and video cassettes, CDs, instrument cases, perfume packaging.

Pad printing allows you to print in several colors, including CMYK, however, just like in silk-screen printing, color matching is very problematic. The image size is limited by the size of the pad and the cliche. When applying images to products made of metal, glass and ceramics, two- and three-component paints are used to give additional stability, as well as additional heat treatment

Pros: identity of all products in the run, possibility of using Pantone, low cost per print for large runs, printing on curved surfaces

Cons: pre-press process - cliché, adjustment; as a rule, the size of the printed area is small; high cost for small runs

Surfaces for application: glass, plastic, ceramics, wood, metal.
Pages: 64

Series or Issue: Ceramics Lessons
The stunningly illustrated book is a step-by-step course in the school of hand-sculpting.
Insanely good photos as well as detailed comments on them make it possible to determine the suitability of clay for modeling, teach how to effectively prepare and process it, give the ability to go step by step through all the stages of preparing clay dough in order to begin molding all kinds of products: vases, sculptures and also abstract forms.
The book is intended for both specialists and a wide range of ceramics lovers.

Modern inhabitants are so accustomed to all the benefits of civilization that many of them simply cannot imagine that somewhere in the desert there are real cities built practically out of dirt. Exactly at Yemen In the middle of a lifeless landscape above the cliffs of mountain peaks or in lost plains there are such villages made not of stone or cement, but of raw clay bricks. Every year, multi-storey buildings are washed away during the short rainy season, and residents persistently build them anew. What you see is simply breathtaking.

With the exception of the coastal valleys near the Red Sea, the terrain of the country of Yemen is characterized by arid mountainous regions. A special place among them is occupied by seasonal river valleys called “Wadi”. They fill with water only during the rainy summer months, while at other times of the year there is drought. The most famous of them are Wadi Hadhramaut ( Wadi Hadramut) and Wadi Davan ( Wadi Dawan). Entire villages and towns with multi-storey clay houses are built on the plateau.

On a plateau rising 200 meters above the valley level is the village of Haid Al-Jazil. It literally resembles the set for a movie about the adventures of Indiana Jones. It seems that the houses are about to fall off the cliff, taking with them the lives of the doomed residents. But this is only the first impression of uninformed tourists. In fact, Haid Al-Jazil has stood on this site for over 500 years. Residents monitor the condition of clay buildings and immediately repair them if necessary.

When mentioning the unique cities of the Wadi, one cannot help but stop at Shibam ( Shibam), founded in the 16th century. It is very unexpected to see such architecture in the middle of lifeless sands, but the height of each of the houses is from 6 to 11 floors! It’s not for nothing that this place is called “the Manhattan of the desert.” Like any other medieval city, Shibam was surrounded by a fortress wall. However, over time, there were more residents, so the houses grew not wider, but higher. Amazingly, there are still about 500 multi-storey residential buildings in the city. Clay bricks and wooden floors are the main building materials for unique homes. It is worth noting that these buildings are constantly being repaired, because during the rainy season, many facades are simply washed away.

The village is truly pleasing to the eye Al-Khurayba. From a distance, traditional houses resemble colorful squares of a patchwork quilt. This facade of the house is due to a businessman from Saudi Arabia, whose childhood was spent in Al-Khurayba. In addition, the philanthropist also built several new schools and hospitals in the village.

Not all ancient cities have had mercy on time. Many architectural monuments of worldwide fame cannot be seen today for a number of reasons. From these, only ruins and chronicle memories remained.

The first section of the Big Circle Metro Line won the competition of the Zodchestvo festival. Five stations were opened to passengers ten months ago. A new opening is ahead - “Savelovskaya” of the new ring is almost ready. What difficulties the builders encountered during its construction, where work is still underway in Moscow to extend the subway, was told in an interview with VM by the head of the capital’s Construction Department, Andrei Bochkarev.

In the coming weeks, “Savelovskaya” of the Big Circle will appear on the map of the capital’s subway. The construction of this and other stations of the new line became a real test for the builders. What exactly, in an interview with VM, the head of the city’s Construction Department told Andrey Bochkarev.

Opening soon

— Andrey Yuryevich, a megaproject is being implemented in Moscow - the Big Circle Line, the construction of which is divided into stages. Which part of the new branch is receiving the most attention now?

— The new underground ring in Moscow is a truly huge project, analogues of which are still worth looking for. Today, the longest ring metro line in the world is in Beijing, but we expect to overtake the Chinese capital. In an Asian metropolis this is 57 kilometers, we will build almost 70. If we talk about where people and equipment are involved, then today on all sections of the Big Circle Line we have started construction and installation work, or the preparatory stage: installation of enclosing structures and arrangement of construction sites. In the western, southern, southwestern and northeastern sections of the Great Ring, excavation work is underway - soil is being excavated from pits. The excavation of distillation tunnels has begun in the listed areas. The construction of the main structures of the Lefortovo station in the north-eastern section is in full swing.

In the east of the city, where a new line is also being built, construction sites are being developed. Thus, we can safely say that the entire line is covered by our attention, and we will launch it in several sections. Stations are expected to open every year.

— Five stations of the new line have been accepting passengers since February. In the coming months, the sixth one, “Savelovskaya” of the Big Circle Line, should start operating. What work remains at the station?

— Its construction began in March 2012. It was complicated by the fact that the territories here are well developed, with a large number of communications passing through them. The station is located under the Savelovsky Station square, along the Third Transport Ring. Imagine the passenger flows here: 45 thousand people pass through this transport hub every day.

Very soon the Big Ring will have another interchange - to the Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya line. It is important to understand that Savelovskaya is one of the most difficult stations to build on the Big Ring. It is located at a depth of over 65 meters.

It's like going 20 stories underground and building a building there. However, the chosen method also has its advantages. This location allows builders to work in dense urban areas and not cause any particular inconvenience to citizens who are usually associated with construction. The excavation of distillation tunnels with a length of 1.9 kilometers from the Petrovsky Park station towards Savelovskaya, as well as the main construction work, have been completed. Now the builders are busy with finishing work, as well as commissioning escalators and utility systems. The construction of a service connecting branch with the Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya line is in its final stage. The station will be operational in the near future and will become convenient for citizens. Two underground lobbies will lead passengers to both sides of Butyrskaya Street, to the Savyolovsky Station and ground transport stops.

— Will the station somehow stand out in its design among other underground new buildings?

— Since at Savelovskaya of the Big Ring you can transfer to the station of the same name on the gray metro line, the design is dominated by gray colors. Cast iron tubes under glass became decorative elements. We made this decision to tell people about the difficulty with which builders, at a depth of 65 meters underground, through a mine, brought in these cast iron tubes, each weighing more than a ton.

They are placed under glass. There are now only two other similar construction projects in the city - at Rzhevskaya and at Sheremetyevskaya, their depth is more than 70 meters.

— You said that Savelovskaya will become a major transport hub. Due to what?

— Passengers from Lobnya, Dmitrov, Dubna, Savelov, Mozhaisk, Zvenigorod arrive at Savelovsky Station every day. It is quite difficult for the gray metro line to cope with such passenger traffic. The new hub will provide a transfer between two metro lines, ground transport and electric trains at Savelovsky Station. By the way, this is where a stop will be built for the first direction of the Moscow Central Diameters - from Lobnya to Odintsovo. It is expected that this modern hub will be used by about 300 thousand people per day.

— When can we expect the launch of this central diameter?

— By the end of 2019 - beginning of 2020, it is planned to launch trains with reduced intervals on the first Moscow Central Diameter. Although the first Moscow Central Diameter trains will begin testing earlier, they will be tested on dedicated night routes without passengers. New urban trains “Ivolga” will run along the Moscow Central Diameters. The working hours of the Moscow Central Diameters will be the same as in the metro - from 5:30 to 1:00.

Build in depth

— Andrey Yurievich, let’s return to the topic of the Great Metro Ring. Which section will be the next to be put into operation?

— Next year we plan to open part of the northeastern section of the Big Ring from Aviamotornaya to Lefortovo. This section will be adjacent to the new Nekrasovskaya metro line, which we are launching in two stages.

— Which part of the Great Circle is the most difficult for builders?

— The most labor-intensive for metro builders are deep stations. There will be three such stations on the Big Circle Line, in addition to the already mentioned Savelovskaya, these are the Rzhevskaya and Sheremetyevskaya stations. They are part of the northeastern segment. Traditionally, this area of ​​Moscow has a high water inflow in the soil. But our metro builders have extensive experience working in such conditions, and I have no doubt that they will cope with the task.

— We have already started talking about the Nekrasovskaya line, how will it be integrated into the city transport network?

— The Nekrasovskaya Line will be connected to the Big Circle Line under construction, the Moscow Central Circle, as well as radial railway lines. Thus, we will not only integrate areas that currently do not have their own stations into the Moscow metro network, but will also reduce passenger traffic on the busiest line today - Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya.

— Will the line be long?

— Yes, the pink line will be quite long. Its length will exceed 15 kilometers and there will be eight stations. It will run from the Nekrasovka microdistrict through the Kosino-Ukhtomsky, Vykhino-Zhulebino, Ryazan and Nizhny Novgorod districts. The line will improve transport services for 800 thousand residents of the south-east of the capital and the adjacent part of the Moscow region. It’s a big deal to introduce a much-needed part of the city underground for Muscovites.

The subway goes to New Moscow

— Next year a new section of the Sokolnicheskaya line will open from the Salaryevo station to the Stolbovo station. How is work going there?

— The construction of the section on the territory of New Moscow is at the final stage, we will carry out the main construction and installation work this year, and trains with passengers will travel along the line in April-May next year. There are four stations on the Salaryevo-Stolbovo section.

Now the construction of vestibules is underway at the site, architectural and finishing work is underway, and the superstructure of the tracks is being laid.

— What are the plans for the metro to introduce new sections from 2020 to 2023?

— In the next three years, we plan to introduce about 35 metro stations. All sections of the Big Ring will be completed, the Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya line will be extended to the village of Severny.

— Andrey Yuryevich, when will it be possible to get to Vnukovo by metro?

— By 2023, the metro line is planned to be extended to Vnukovo airport. The routing project for the 5.2-kilometer section will be approved next year. It is planned to extend the Solntsevsky radius by two more stations: “Pykhtino” and “Vnukovo” with access to the airport along Central Street.

Development perspective

— What are the plans in New Moscow, besides extending the Sokolnicheskaya line?

— A new metro line with ten stations, Kommunarskaya, will come to the annexed territories. Its total length will be about 22 kilometers. We will build it in two stages: from the station “Sevastopolsky Prospekt” to “Innovator Street” and from “Innovator Street” to “Stolbov”. The work is planned to be completed approximately in 2023. Three stations will appear on the first section of the Kommunarskaya Line: Sevastopolsky Prospekt, Akademicheskaya, and Ulitsa Stroiteley. On the second section there will be seven stations: “Ulitsa Novatorov”, “

— When will the construction of the chords and roads be completed?

— On the North-Western Expressway we are currently constructing a beam bridge across the Karamyshevskoe straightening, we plan to complete it next year. The remaining sections of the chord have already been built. On the North-Eastern Expressway, construction of the section from Otkrytoe Highway to Losinoostrovskaya Street is currently ongoing. Work is being carried out on the project for the construction of a section of the North-Eastern Expressway from Shchelkovskoye to Otkrytoye Shosse. In addition, design and survey work is underway on the section from Otkrytoye to Yaroslavskoye highway and from Yaroslavskoye to Dmitrovskoye highway. We will most likely begin construction early next year.

As for the Southern Rockade, many sections here are under design, their construction is planned to be completed before 2022.

Vasilisa Chernyavskaya

"Ancient Palestine" - Ancient Palestine. Geographical position. David became king of the Jews. To form a system of ideas about Ancient Palestine. Idea of ​​Ancient Palestine. Elders. Geographical location of Phenicia. Find the extra word. Biblical stories about heroes. Moses cuts water out of the rock. Many kingdoms were formed in Palestine.

“Test on the Ancient East” - What was the name of the Philistine hero. During the capture of Nineveh, the royal palace burned down. In ancient times, Phenicia was part of a vast region called Canaan. Assyrian power. The Ancient East. Crime laws. The item was found during excavations in Babylon. The capital of Assyria, the city of Nineveh, was called the “city of blood” in ancient times.

"Ancient Western Asia" - Iron. Education and art 10 This was the name of the school in Ancient Mesopotamia. Elisa and Carthage. Administration 20 This is what the king's governors were called in Persia. Military affairs 10 What types of troops did the Assyrian army consist of? Second round. The teacher's assistant records the sum of points (+ -) for each answer on the board and at the end of the round sums up the total score of the teams.

"Phenicia" - Discoveries of the Phoenicians. Phoenician ship. Achievements of the Phoenicians. Sea. Natural features. Phoenician settlements. Phoenicia. Document. Phoenicians. Trade and craft. Country of seafarers. Phoenician trade. Location of Phenicia.

"Ancient Mesopotamia" - Oak. 1. The Ancient World and the Ancient East. Eridu. Uruk. En-lil). Powerful army. The end is the invasion of the Hyksos. New Kingdom (XVI - XI centuries BC) - borders to the IV threshold and the Euphrates (Thutmose III). Mesopotamia lost its independent political significance. III millennium BC e. - Akkad. Africa and Asia are the first civilizations (“river”).

“Culture of Mesopotamia” - Artistic culture of Mesopotamia. 1. Apis. As you complete your study, try to answer the following questions. 3. I'm walking. 2. Pyramid. 2. Ishtar. 4. Why were cities and temples built on platforms in Mesopotamia? 3. They wanted to be closer to the gods. 2. The door was considered sacred. 5. What records were made by the ancient Sumerians?

Against the background of the prevailing stereotype about a bathhouse as a building made of logs, bricks or foam blocks, a bathhouse made of clay, adobe, and clay blocks looks like a return to the last century. However, natural materials have excellent thermal insulation characteristics. To understand the advantages of a clay box, it is worth at least remembering houses with adobe walls made of shingles and adobe.

Is it possible to make a bathhouse out of clay turk?

At first glance, lumps of wood and clay are not the best materials for building a bathhouse, especially a steam room. And the point here is not that wood treated with clay mortar does not withstand wet steam and temperature well. If the technology is followed, the walls of the bathhouse can withstand the conditions of dry hot steam, and in some cases you can steam in a Russian steam room.

Usually, enthusiasts of building a bathhouse from all kinds of alternative materials when constructing a box face more serious difficulties:

• A clay chock is a piece of log in the form of a log or chopped chock. When laying walls from such material, it is very difficult to create even planes and maintain the geometry of the bathhouse box, especially in the corners of the room. Therefore, the building is usually built in a round shape;
• Effective insulation of the walls of a clay bath from soaking by surface groundwater. Often it is necessary to lift the building onto a stone or brick strip and insulate the base with rolled materials.

A bathhouse based on clay pots is built with a central location of the stove. The surface of the walls and the ends of the chocks are rubbed with thin clay, which practically does not absorb water. At the end of the steam bath procedures, the hot stove perfectly dries the interior of the bathhouse.

Bathhouse made of clay and wood

A bathhouse made of clay, slightly unusual in its design, attracts attention with its simplicity of design, environmental friendliness of the material and enormous possibilities in the implementation of the most daring and unusual forms of the building.

Clay burr, photo, is sawn or chopped pieces of a pine or spruce trunk from which the bark and knots have been removed.

After adjusting the dimensions, the building material for the bathhouse is impregnated with an anti-rot solution, wiped with liquid clay with a small admixture of ammonia and dried in the shade. The result is a clay pot that is damp to the touch, which does not burn or rot. For the basement of the bathhouse, burnt wood is used. If the soil is dry, with a low groundwater level, then the clay pot box can be placed directly on the site with the top soil cover removed.

Building a clay bathhouse with your own hands makes sense for two reasons:

• A very simple technology for constructing a box at home. It may take more time to build than using traditional materials, but even novice builders can handle the work;
• Low cost of building a bathhouse and cheap materials. Logs and clay binder for making clay pots can be obtained from the nearby forest and quarry.

Of course, in such a steam room the level of amenities is far from wooden and, especially, brick buildings. But, in any case, the bathhouse turns out to be unusually warm and easy to breathe. Even if it was built by amateurs. According to reviews, such a bathhouse simply treats colds, aching joints and stiffness.

For your information! The heat of the hot atmosphere in a bathhouse made of clay or adobe is much easier to bear than in a wooden steam room, and the effect is comparable to the heater of a Russian stove.

Building a foundation for a bathhouse box

This technology has one more drawback - the weakness of the box. If you install chock walls on clay soil, then after a month or two the bathhouse frame will simply corrode.

It is best to build a room on a base made of rubble stone, laid in the ground to a depth of 20-30 cm.

A lot of heat always escapes through the masonry, so the inside of the base is lined with a masonry mixture, or formwork is installed and covered with baked clay.

On a slope under a log bathhouse, it is best to use a columnar foundation and wooden flooring.

Walls and roof of a bathhouse made of clay

For laying chocks treated with clay, a special mixture is prepared, to which horse manure, fatty clay, and chopped rye straw are added. To finish an indoor bathhouse, instead of manure, you can use a small addition of cement, jute or flax fiber.

If the thickness of the bathhouse walls does not exceed 30 cm, or the box is to be built on a difficult terrain, it is advisable to install a frame of logs and beams before laying the block. For large buildings, shingles or lattice are used for laying clay pots. Long slats packed onto the inner surface of the bathhouse walls make it easier to control the thickness and geometry of the wall masonry.

Before laying out the clay pot, adobe masses are applied to the upper part of the wall masonry in “sausages” in two rows. One row along the edge of the outer surface. The second is rubbed in the same way from the inside of the wall.

Thus, an empty space is formed inside the wall masonry between the clay pots, due to which the walls have good thermal insulation and excellent permeability of water vapor. The bathhouse does not freeze even in damp winter weather.

Bathhouse made of wood and cement

A similar principle of double-row laying of the binder is best used in the construction of bathhouse walls based on clay and cement. The presence of voids is extremely important when using cement mortar; moisture is removed well and there are no cracks in the walls. The box is much stronger than on adobe clay, so the bathhouse can be built in a more traditional rectangular or square design.

The outer surface of the walls is not plastered; the ends of the clay mortar remain as a natural decoration. Inside the bathhouse, the walls are rubbed with a thin layer of sand-cement plaster.

One of the disadvantages of buildings using clay and cement mortar is the shrinkage of the building. And although, thanks to the presence of lumps in the masonry, shrinkage processes are less noticeable, experts still recommend:

• Be sure to place a rigid bathhouse box on a strip foundation;
• The height of the walls made of clay should be limited to 3.5-4 m, otherwise the clay will deform inside the masonry and the wooden liner will peel off from the cement base;
• The bathhouse box, built from clay and cement mortar, should be kept for a month until the stage of laying the ceiling and roof.

As a stove for a cement-chock bath, you can use ordinary steel potbelly stoves. If masonry made of adobe and clay needs to be protected from the heat of the stove, then a cement wall copes with the thermal load much better.

Bathhouse made of adobe

Of all the known materials used for the construction of houses and baths, adobe is considered the most versatile and best suited for furnishing residential premises, a small bathhouse, an outbuilding, and even a cellar with a glacier.

Construction adobe is somewhat different from the masonry mixture used to fasten the clay pot. Saman adobe is a mixture of clay, horse manure and chopped, well-dried straw. The proportions are approximately 10:2:2. The mixture is soaked for a day, covered with straw and kept in a waterlogged state. Next, the batch is interrupted and mixed either with bare feet or with a special tool for several hours.

After molding, the blocks are dried in the shade, just like clay pots. Sometimes they make facing adobe with the addition of lime, sand and cement for lining and strengthening the basement of the walls of the bathhouse. This material is dried for two weeks in the sun, achieving brick hardness of the surface.

When laying walls, the ends of the adobe blocks are moistened with water, rubbed with a special brush and installed on a clay mortar. Simultaneously with the construction of walls in the bathhouse, windows and doorways are installed, and the floor is laid on blocks.

As in the case of using clay pots, indoor walls are rubbed with liquid clay and lime, external walls are sheathed with slats, clapboard or siding.

Straw bath

The fashion for using environmentally friendly materials for a bathhouse or home has also affected straw. The building box can be constructed in two ways. In the first case, the walls of the bathhouse are erected using frame technology, but instead of mineral fiber insulation, blocks of pressed straw are laid inside.

The second method involves using straw felt. Typically, the material is made by pressing a wet mixture of straw, clay, cut or crushed reeds and jute fibers. The resulting material resembles felt or straw mats in appearance.

Pressed straw conveniently insulates the roof of a clay bathhouse; it does not allow water to pass through, and water vapor encounters virtually no resistance. The only drawback is the need to use special chemicals for the roof of the bathhouse that repel mice, rats, insects and birds.