General geographical information. Basic concepts of geography General geographical information

For a long time, people have been interested in what lies beyond the horizon - new territories or the edge of the earth. Centuries passed, civilization accumulated knowledge. The time had come when scientists who had never been to distant lands knew a lot about them. Sources of geographic information helped them in this.

This article will tell you what they are, as well as their varieties.

General concepts

As you might guess, these are the names of all of which a person can obtain the information he is interested in. What sources of geographic information does 5th grade (in secondary school) consider? Let's list them:

• All geographical maps, atlases, as well as various topographic plans, including military ones.
• Varied geographical descriptions specific area.
• Directories, encyclopedic articles, results and reports of various expeditions.
• Aerial photographs and space
• and GPS/GLONASS.

These are the sources of geographic information that 5th graders in an average secondary school know. We will try to consider the characteristics of some of them in a little more detail.

Modern technologies

IN last years More and more sources are being converted from paper to digital form. And this is not surprising. Almost all 5 sources of geographic information that we just talked about can now be found in digital form. Even professional scientists in recent years have preferred to work with digital data.

It is much more convenient to work with the same GIS system than with a pile of books. Now let's discuss some sources of geographic information in more detail.

Cards

A map is a schematic generalized image of the surface of some part of the earth, the entire planet, or celestial bodies. It is built on the principle of scaling, that is, mathematical methods are used for this. Depending on the scale, all maps are usually divided into three large groups:

• Large scale.
• Medium-scale.
• Small scale.

If we talk about the first category, then the ratio of these documents can be 1:200,000 or larger. This includes almost all topographic plans. All maps with a ratio of less than 1:1,000,000 are considered small-scale. A typical geographic atlas includes either small-scale or medium-scale plans, which are best suited for studying a particular area.

Sorting map information

You should know that long before creating a map, experts make a strict selection of what will be depicted on it. This process is called as follows: cartographic generalization. Naturally, the most stringent selection exists for small-scale maps, since they need to accommodate the maximum volume useful information with a minimal document footprint. In the generalization itself, the direct purpose of the card, as well as the wishes of its customer, play an extremely important role.

Site plans

This is the name for terrain drawings that are made on a large scale (1:5000 or more), and are drawn using special symbols. In this way they resemble a school geographical atlas. The construction of such plans is carried out on the basis of visual, instrumental measurements, aerial photography, or a combined method.

Since the plans indicate relatively small areas of the earth's surface, when creating them, the curvature of the planet can be neglected. It should be clearly understood that these sources of geographic information that we have just described are fundamentally different from each other.

The main differences between plans and maps

• A centimeter of plan rarely contains more than five real kilometers on the ground. They are much more detailed than maps, in one millimeter of which hundreds of kilometers of the earth’s surface can be laid out.
• All objects on the ground are depicted in the plans in as much detail as possible. In principle, all more or less significant areas are marked on the average drawing. Thus, on the topographic plans of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (and the USSR, of course), even trees and small streams can be displayed. It is impossible to fit all this information onto maps. Actually, this is why the generalization that we talked about above is carried out. Even the exact outlines of the continents cannot be displayed on many maps, and therefore they are often plotted with significant distortions. In addition, the additional geography literature described above uses out-of-scale conventions.
• Let us emphasize once again that when constructing a plan, the curvature of the earth’s surface is neglected. Maps, especially on a small scale, must take this into account.
• There is never a degree grid on plans. At the same time, there are parallels and meridians on each of them.
• The plan is always easy to navigate. The top of the document is north, the bottom, respectively, is south. On maps, the direction is determined by parallels.

Methods of depicting objects on plans and maps

Conventional signs in this case are generally accepted options in which the characteristics of the objects depicted on the map or plan are encoded. With their help, you can display both something concrete (a mountain, for example), and something completely abstract, conditional (population density in a city, village, etc.). Of course, they all make life much easier for a person who knows the basics of cartography and knows how to read these drawings.

How long does the card remain valid?

Almost all geographers and geologists ask this question at least once in a while. The specific answer to it depends on the purpose, scale, and author of the plan. Thus, medieval researchers often drew maps literally “on their knees,” so there is no need to talk about their accuracy. But the maps of the General Staff, despite the time, are still amazing in their accuracy.

Do not forget that the maps are characterized by fairly high stability, while the plans of the Amazon and the Nile can be safely thrown away fifty years after their publication. These rivers change the topography of the Earth’s surface so effectively and quickly that older documents are only useful from a historical perspective.

Geographical descriptions, discoveries

All sources of geographic information discussed above are somewhat dry and uninteresting. It is much more interesting to read a description of a region, locality, or even a continent, written by the person who discovered it all!

Jokes aside, but descriptions and reports on geographical (geodetic, biological) research can sometimes provide much more information than the most detailed topographic plan of the area. Moreover, the latter does not reflect some unpleasant features of a particular area (malaria, which is found in some central regions of Africa at every turn, for example).

The list of literature on geography that students are given at school (for example, Nikolina V.V. Geography, Lesson developments; Samkova V.A. We study the forest; Forest Encyclopedia: in 2 volumes / chief editor G.I. Vorobyov ), in fact, was formed thanks to the works of researchers who at one time recorded all this information on a map, being in the thick of things.

Brief information about the discovery of Africa

Let's tell you a little about the history of the discovery of the Dark Continent. Of course, the word “discovery” is not entirely correct here: Australia - yes, I had to suffer with it. In the case of Africa, the coastal areas where black slaves were captured and bought from Arab traders were well explored ivory, but practically no one knew about what was going on in the depths of the continent.

Everything changed in the 19th century, when the legendary man arrived in Africa. It was to him that the honor of discovering the sources of the Nile and the magnificent Lake Victoria belongs. Few people know, but at one time the Russian scientist V.V. Junker (in 1876-1886) was engaged in the research of Central Africa.

For the indigenous population of the mainland, all this ended sadly: the main sources of geographical information (that is, maps), the data for which all these brave scientists collected with such difficulty and constant danger to their lives, began to be actively used by slave traders...

So, we are actually done with maps and plans. Geographic atlases fall into the same category. What is the role of modern sources of geographic information? To answer this question, let’s consider the principle of sharing old paper maps and a navigator, which is now actively used even by professional geographers and geologists.

GPS/GLONASS + maps

It should be noted that this method is excellent for determining the accuracy of maps, atlases and topographic plans. In addition, this technique satisfies the needs of historians, since they can see with their own eyes how much the area has changed, which is described in historical chronicles by contemporaries of certain events. However, literature on geography often contains plans of the area that have not been updated since the beginning of the last century.

To use such an accurate, but rather labor-intensive and somewhat extravagant method, you will have to perform three references (three different maps) to the same area of ​​the terrain:

• First, find a more or less modern map or topographic plan.
• It is advisable to have with you a recent aerospace photograph of the area under study with topographic reference to the coordinate system.
• Finally, you need the card whose information you are going to check.

The point of this operation is to enter all three of these terrain drawings into the navigator’s memory. Modern models Such devices have a fairly powerful processor and an impressive amount of RAM, so you can switch between cards instantly.

Determining the route

It is best to plan a route using modern map or topographic plan. We do not recommend using old documents for this. It is quite possible that in place of the swamp there is now a passable area, but you will no longer be able to walk along the edge of the once rare young forest, since the geography of the area has radically changed. A map is good, but in most cases such documents are not very accurate.

Why are aerial photography and satellite imagery preferable to maps?

But why are paper drawings so inferior to modern technology products? This is due to the following two reasons:

• Firstly, the relevance of space photography or aerial photography in most cases is much higher. When else will cartographers be able to carry out the next generalization of new data and release up-to-date terrain plans?
• In the pictures you can literally determine the characteristics of a particular area in real time. On a map or even a topographical plan, the tree species in the forest will be displayed only schematically and only in general order. Simply put, stumbling upon a dense spruce forest in the middle of a birch forest is quite possible, but in a dense coniferous forest it is much easier to get lost.

Having chosen the route and checking the new photographs, it is recommended to contact old map. Why such difficulties? Imagine that you are a biologist in the field. You need to determine how much the forest has grown, what new tree species have appeared, how many types of forest have changed over all these years. Ideal for all these tasks, a simple overlay new card to its old counterpart. Thus, everything becomes visible as clearly as possible.

These are the sources geography uses. The map is perhaps the most important of them, but we should not forget that over the past decades science and technology have made huge strides forward, and therefore it would be stupid not to take advantage of all modern achievements.

Conclusion

So you have found out which sources of geographic information are currently the most relevant. Oddly enough, we still use all the same plans and maps that were invented before our era. Of course, adjusted for their modern appearance.

Bondarev N. D.

Arkhyz and Bolshaya Laba. -M, 2002.

Preface

General information

Features of travel in spring and summer

Pages of history

B. Laba Valley

M1. Kurdzhinovo - village Phiya.

M2. To the origins of the Great Laba.

MZ. Ashirhumara

M4. To the Labinsky glacier.

Zagedan

M5. To the Zagedan Lakes (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

Phiya

M6. Rechepsta River - lane. Phiya - village Phia (23 km, trail, 1 day)

M7. Phiya village - r. Phiya - lane Urup-Pkhiya - to the source of the river. Atsgara.

Stormy and Azimba

M8. B. Laba River - r. Stormy - lane Vorontsova-Velyaminova - l. Azimba - r. Azimba (25 km, 2 days)

M9. Burnaya River - lane Duritsky - b. Amanauz (17 km, 1 day)

From the upper reaches of B. Laba

M10. B. Laba River - lane Zegerker - trans. 46th Army - lane. Alashtrakhu, trail, 12 km, 1 day.

M11. Labinsky Glacier - lane. Psyrs - Psyrs lakes (1.5 days)

Sanchara

M12. Phiya village - r. Sanchara - lane Sanchara - lane Hell-zapsh, trail, 2 days.

M13. Polyana 7th post - mineral springs Adzapsh - lane. Adzapsh.

M14. Mineral springs Adzapsh - trail along the ridge of the GKH - lane. V. Damkhurts - river valley Damkhurts (trail, 2 days).

M15. B. Laba River - lane Abgytskha - the left source of the river. Abgytskha (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

Macera

M16. Phiya village - r. Makera - per. Macera (trail)

Mamkhurts

M17. Damkhurts village - r. Mamkhurts - "Seven Lakes" (4-5 days)

Other routes

Damkhurts

M18. Damkhurts village - lane. Damkhurts

Other routes

Big Zelenchuk. Arkhyz

On the way to Arkhyz

M19. Zelenchukskaya village - Arkhyz village (highway, 48 km).

M20. Nizhnyaya Ermolovka - Krivaya gully - Shpil settlement - r. Kyafar (trail, 1-2 days).

M21. Monuments of Nizhny Arkhyz (1 day).

M22. To the Savior Not Made by Hands

M23. Lower Arkhyz - Jeti-Karasu tract - Large azimuthal telescope.

M24. Climbing Mount Pastukhovaya (2733 m, 4 hours)

Other routes

In the vicinity of the village of Arkhyz

M25. Medieval Alan settlement (4-hour excursion).

M26. Barite beam - ridge. Abishira-Ahuba (8 hours).

M27. Rock Karcha-Tebe - lane. Boryu-aush

M28. Arkhyz outlook (6 hours).

M29. Cossack glade - Morkh-Syrty lakes - lane. Ozerny.

M30. Climbing Mt. Krasnaya (trail, half day)

Other routes

Valley of the Arkhyz River

M31. Aul Arkhyz - r. Arkhyz (19 km, road).

M32. Arkhyz River - Gabulu-Chat plateau - Smirnova -r. Psysh (2 days, trail).

M33. Dukka River - lane Ayulu - r. Belaya - r. Psysh (26 km, 2 days).

M34. Dukka Pass - r. Burnaya - r. B. Laba.

M35. Fedoseev Pass (1 A, 2880 m).

M36. Rechepsta River - lane. Atsgara - r. Atsgara (trail, 17 km).

Other routes

Psysh

M37. River valley Psysh - lake Naurskoye (trail, 31 km).

M38. Naur Pass (1 A, 2839 m).

M39. Magana pass - Psyrs lakes - lane. Bearish.

M40. Pshish Pass

M41. Sekirtme River - lane. Chuchkhur - Green Lakes - lane. Hare Ears or per. Kholodovsky - r. Psysh (3 days)

M42. Bush Glacier - lane. Kizgych False - trans. Chuchhurskaya Gap - lane. Chamagwara.

M43. Glacier Psysh - lane. Tokmak and lane Psysh.

Other routes

Belaya and amanauz

M44. Belaya River (Ayulyu) - lane. Dorbun - the source of the river. Stormy

M45. Gorge river Amanauz - per. Tornau and per. Bear-Labinsky glacier.

M46. Amanauz River - lane. Poachers - r. Burnaya (9 km)

M47. Amanauz and Azimba passes

Other routes

Sofia

M48. Aul Arkhyz - r. Sofia - Glacier farm (road, 16 km).

M49. Sofia Falls (half-day excursion) leaves an unforgettable impression.

M50. Sophia Sedlo pass (2640 m)

M51. Glacier farm - r. Ak-Ayry - per. Bash-Jol -r. Psysh (20 km, 1 day)

M52. Ak-Ayry River - lane. Topal-Aush (Kozhukhova) - Green Lakes (2 days)

M53. Ak-Ayry glacier - lane. Ak-Ayry - r. Kyshlau-su (1 day)

M54. Climbing Mount Nadezhda (1A, 3355 m, 10-12 hours)

M55. Ak-Ayry River - lane. Kel-Aush - Upper Sofia Lakes - Kel-Bashi city - r. Ak-Ayry (2-3 days)

M56. River valley Sofia - Gammesh-Chat lakes (excursion, 15 km)

M57. River Sofia - lane Eaglet - lake Craternoe - lake Comma - lakes Kashkha-Echki-Chat - r. Sofia (16 km, 2 3 days)

Other routes

Kizgic

M58. Aul Arkhyz - r. Kizgych - Kshgych-Bash tract (trail, 3-6 days).

M59. Kizgych-Bash tract - Besh-Chuchkhur waterfall - Green Lakes (one-day excursion).

M60. Kizgych and Satkharo passes

M61. Kizgych-Bash tract - river valley. Salynngan - l. Saleunggan (one-day excursion)

M62. Lake Mironova (6-8 hour excursion)

M63. Passes Kongur, Salyngan, Chvakhra

M64. Baga-Tala tract - lane. Bugoychat - r. Marukh (14 km)

M65. Pass of the 810th Rifle Regiment (1 B, 3000 m)

M66. Kurella Pass - lane. Chvakhra - trans. Kongur - lane Satharo - trans. Kizgych False

Kyafar-Urup. Abishira-Ahuba

M67. Zelenchukskaya village - Storozhevaya village - village. Leso-Kyafar

M68. Village Zelenchukskaya - r. B. Zelenchuk - Generovskaya beam - r. Kyafar-Agur - forestry cordon

At the source of the Kyafar-Agur River

M69. Kyzylchuk ridge - Rassypnoy hillock - Agur lakes - lane. Fedoseeva - Arkhyz (trail, 4-6 days).

M70. Agur Lakes - lane. Agur - per. Mylgval - lake. Kyzylchuk (1-1.5 days).

M71. West River Agur - per. Kumbyzh - lake Kyzylchuk - lake Rybnoe (trail, 4-5 hours).

Other routes

Kyzylchuk. Chilik.

M72. Rassypnoy hillock - Kumbyzh tract - r. Kyzylchuk-oz. Rybnoye - lane Rechepsta - r. Arkhyz (3-4 days)

M73. Rybnoye Lake - lane. Kynhara - lake Chilik - lane Chilik - r. Arkhyz (1.5-2 days)

M74. Rybnoye Lake - lane. Kyzylchuk - lake Chilik - lane Psykela - r. Atsgara - Glade of poppies (2-3 days)

M75. Traverse ridge Abishir-Ahuba from the lane. Chilik to lane Rechepsta

M76. Kyafar-Rechepsta pass (1A, 3000 m)

M77. Kyafar-Arkhyz pass (1 A*, 3000 m)

Other routes

Atsgara

M78. Atsgara River - lane. Zagedan - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba (1-1.5 days).

M79. Glade of poppies - lane. Kabanly - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba

M80. Glade of poppies - lane. Kyrthua - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba (1.5 days)

To the sources of the Urup River

M81. Urup village - ridge. Akshirsky - upper reaches of the river. Urup -r. Zagedanka (trail, 3-4 days)

M82. Great Urup Canyon

M83. Urup-Atsgara pass (1 A*, 3000 m)

Other routes

Brief toponymic dictionary

PREFACE

The Western Caucasus is one of the most popular areas of mountain tourism, which in the 90s experienced a decline in attendance, as did the entire Caucasus as a whole. In recent years, tourists and climbers have begun to return here. Convenient access, diverse, technically interesting passes and peaks, many high-mountain lakes - all this attracts lovers of mountain travel.

The last book on this region was the guidebook “Mountain Travels in the Western Caucasus” (V.V. Arsenin, N.D. Bondarev, E.D. Sergievsky. M: FiS, 1976). Since then, in the West. The Caucasus has undergone serious changes.

The routes to the southern slopes of the Main Caucasus Range (GKR) were cut off due to the appearance of the state border, on northern slopes new routes have been developed. A need arose for a new guide, and it was decided to publish it in two books: “Arkhyz. Big Laba” (N.D. Bondarev) and “From Marukh to Elbrus” (V.V. Arsenin). They continue the series of guidebooks “Elbrus and its spurs” and “South of Baksan” (A. A. Alekseev).

The guidebook for each valley first describes the approach routes, then the pass routes to neighboring gorges. By connecting individual sections, you can create multi-day routes of varying difficulty levels. Descriptions of the passage of passes are mainly tied to July - August. A separate section is devoted to traveling in the off-season (April - May, October - November). Techniques for overcoming mountainous terrain, with rare exceptions, are not given.

Due to rare visits to some valleys, descriptions of individual areas may not correspond to the specific situation, primarily due to the condition of trails, bridges and the location of the pits. In recent years, intensive glacial melting has been observed in the Caucasus, which is why large areas open up even on the slopes of northern exposure in August open ice, the danger of rockfalls increases.

In the descriptions, the indications "left" and "right" are used in an orographic sense, when the observer is looking down the river. Otherwise stated.

Currently, the area has become a border area. To visit it, especially near the border with Abkhazia, permission is required, which can be obtained in advance at the address: 357100, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Cherkessk, st. Leonova, 2, military unit 2011.

At the end of the book there is a list of literature that allows you to become more familiar with the nature and history of the area.

In the guidebook, the chapter "General" geographical information"written together with V.V. Arsenin. E.A. Alperten, E.A. Chernopyatov took part in the descriptions of the routes. A. Kovalenko, A. Kozhukhov, N.V. Koloshina, V. provided assistance in preparing the book with their materials. P. Kuznetsov, I. T. Kuznetsov, V. A. Lunin, P. F. Chirukhin, V. Ya. Fridlyand It is worth noting the special role of L. V. Vegener in the preparation of the guide. He compiled a toponymic dictionary, described several routes and Valuable comments were made on the text and diagrams.

The guide uses photographs by E. A. Alperten, N. D. Bondarev, V. A. Zheltyakov, N. Yu. Kretov, A. V. Pavelchik and E. A. Chernopyatov. At the final stage of preparing the book, a lot of technical work was done by V. A. Kozhin, V. V. Konyshev, L. V. Turkina, E. A. Chernopyatov.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

The Western Caucasus is the region of the Caucasus west of Elbrus with borders along the upper reaches of the Kuban and Nenskra. In a narrower sense, to the West. The Caucasus includes the region that includes a high-mountain, glacier-covered section of the Main Caucasus Range (MCR) about 200 km long. Located to the west, more low mountains belongs to the North-West. Caucasus.

The guide covers part of the West. Caucasus with mountains in the upper reaches of B. Zelenchuk, B. Laba, Kyafar-Agur and Urup. Administratively, this territory belongs to the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Stavropol and Krasnodar region. The most high peaks districts - Pshish (3790 m) and Sofia (3640 m).

Spurs extend north from the GKH, separated by deep valleys of the tributaries of the B. Zelenchuk and B. Laba. At a distance of about 20 km from the GKH, a ridge is located parallel to it. Abishira-Ahuba, belonging to the system of the Advanced (Side) Ridge. By the way, Elbrus (5642 m) also belongs to it. Even further north, along the Peredovoye, stretches the Rocky Ridge (altitude about 2000 m), which has gentle northern slopes. To the south of the GKH there are the Bzyb and Chkhalta ridges. Their spurs, cut through deep canyons the Amtkel, Jampal, Kelasuri and Gumista rivers gradually disappear towards the Black Sea coast.

The rivers of the northern slope of the GKH cut through the Side Range with tight gorges, and in the upper reaches many valleys have extensive basins. The rivers originate from glaciers and snowfields; maximum water occurs in the summer; for the most part, the rivers are clean and transparent.

A mountain river is a serious obstacle. The crossing is especially difficult in rainy weather, when the water level rises noticeably. In the Caucasus, where there is a fairly dense network of roads and trails, there are bridges across almost all major rivers. The route must be tied to them. The shepherds build luggage, temporary bridges across large streams. You can find out about the condition of these crossings in villages and villages.

There are many lakes in this region. At altitude, the largest of them lie in carts left by ancient glaciers. Many small tarns and moraine lakes (some with ice until the end of summer) give these mountains a special charm.

The higher a mountainous country is raised, the deeper and more ancient stone layers are exposed and come into view as a result of weathering and erosion of rocks. When traveling through the valleys of the Kuban, you see near Cherkessk, by the river, Quaternary deposits and sedimentary rocks of the Tertiary period (up to 65 million years old), beyond Ust-Dzhegutinskaya - the Cretaceous period (up to 140 million years old). Then, at the entrance to Karachaevsk and beyond it, you cross a wide belt of Jurassic rocks (up to 200 million years old).

On the seismic map of the country, the Caucasus is classified as a 7-8 point zone. An earthquake in the mountains is dangerous due to the occurrence of rockfalls, collapse of cornices and mudflows. A strong earthquake, called the Chkhalta earthquake, occurred on July 16, 1963. Its epicenter was located near the village of Ptysh, which caused great destruction. A rockfall led to a tragedy in a group of climbers on the wall of Mount Dombay-Ulgena.

On the southern slope of the GKH, where there was a thunderstorm with rain at that time, landslides occurred. As a result, the road in the village was destroyed in several places. Chkhalta. The landslide blocked the upper reaches of the river. Ptysh. The river swept away the barrier, the mudflow washed away the banks and toppled the forest.

Although strong tremors are rare, their likelihood forces one to carefully approach the choice of bivouac site, critically assessing it (including ready-made sites) from the point of view of rockfall.

The climate of the area is determined by two factors: proximity to the Black Sea and a chain of high mountains. The influence of the sea is stronger on the southern slopes, which intercept a significant part of the moisture from warm western and southwestern winds. At their foot and on the coast, about 1500 mm of precipitation falls per year. With altitude, the amount of precipitation increases, reaching 3000 mm or more. In winter, a lot of snow falls at moderate altitudes; in the highlands, the thickness of the snow cover reaches several meters.

It is colder and drier on the northern slopes. When crossing the GKH, this difference is very noticeable. As you ascend into the mountains, the temperature drops and the amount of precipitation increases. In Teberda, located at an altitude of about 1300 m, average temperature July +15.6 "C, January ~4" C, about 700 mm of precipitation falls per year.

In Dombay (1630 m) the temperature is several degrees lower, and the precipitation is twice as much. According to long-term observations at the Klukhorsky Pass weather station (2037 m), the height of the snow cover reaches 2 m, and on the pre-summit slopes it reaches 4 m. The rainiest months are May and June. The relatively dry season lasts from August to October. In August, frosts are already common at altitudes of 2500 m.

Over the last hundred years, the area of ​​most glaciers has decreased by about a quarter, and their number has increased due to fragmentation (although some small ones have disappeared completely). The average thickness of cirque glaciers is 25-30 m, and of large valley glaciers - 100 m. The glaciers continue to retreat, the moraines are covered with grass and bushes. The Caucasus is characterized by the proximity of glaciers and bright greenery. In the Hetskvara gorge in July, azalea blooms a few tens of meters from the glacier.

Avalanche danger occurs in late autumn in October - November, when snowfalls begin. Avalanches of dry snow occur during or immediately after heavy snowfalls (70-100 mm per day). During snowstorms, snow boards form. In cold winters with little snow, the cause of an avalanche can be the formation of a fragile layer of deep frost. With the transition of the average daily temperature above 0 °C in March - April, the time of wet avalanches begins. They are also possible in winter during thaws. Mass avalanches usually end by May, but in the highlands this period is delayed. On snowy slopes and under eaves, avalanche danger persists all year round.

Avalanche cones remain at the foot of the slopes until the middle, and in shaded areas until the end of summer. The danger of avalanches also exists in the middle mountains: avalanche centers, although rare, are known near Teberda and Arkhyz. Particular attention to avalanche danger is required when traveling in spring (May) and autumn.

Entering the mountains from the north, you first cross a belt of deciduous forests, starting from an altitude of 500-600 m. Its lower floor (up to 900-1000 m) is occupied by oak-hornbeam forests with hazel, ash, pear, and the upper (up to 1400 m) - beech. In wide developed parts of the valleys, such forests are found in islands, but they completely cover the steep, inaccessible slopes of the gorges. Alder and willow grow along the river banks. At altitudes from 1200-1400 m to 2200 m there are dark coniferous forests (fir, spruce). Dry sunny slopes and rocks are occupied by pine trees.

Above there is a subalpine belt, the limits of which range from 1800 to 2500 m. Above the edge of the tall-trunk forest stretches a strip of beech, birch, and maple woodland. There are also thickets of rhododendrons, the bushes of which bloom at different times, and its white or cream inflorescences can be seen almost all summer. Even higher up lie tall grass meadows as tall as a man. There is a kingdom of flowers here: orange elecampane, blue bells, white daisies, pink hollyhocks, yellow lilies, crimson clover. Three-meter umbrellas of hogweed rise in the middle of the sea of ​​flowers. Touching it causes long-lasting burns.

On gentle slopes where livestock are grazed, the grass stand is poorer. Thickets of horse sorrel and poisonous hellebore stand out here. In alpine meadows (2500-3200 m), short grass does not hide the stones. The flower carpet is filled with bright blue hyacinths, purple primroses, yellow ranunculus, pink asters and purple bluebells. Grass and flowers also grow on rocky shelves high above the snowfields and ice.

Animal world includes more than 40 species of mammals and 120 species of birds. The forests are home to wild boar, roe deer, Caucasian deer, fox, lynx, jackal, and marten. The brown hare is found everywhere. The Altai squirrel, introduced in 1937, has spread. There are also wolves. In the Caucasian and Teberda nature reserves, work is underway to restore the herd that was exterminated at the beginning of the 20th century. Caucasian bison. In summer, a brown bear stays near the edge of the forest, where you can stumble upon a bedding area it has left. It also enters valleys, especially raspberry fields. On the grassy ledges near the forest you can see a herd of chamois, and on the rocks in the upper reaches of the gorges - aurochs. Tur's "paths" follow barely noticeable ledges and shelves; traces of tur's are also found on snowfields. It is dangerous to be below these animals, because stones may fall from under their hooves!

Among the birds of the forest and meadow zones there are both common for the middle zone - jay, woodpecker, cuckoo, and mountain ones - stone partridge (chukar), griffon vulture, black vulture. In the highlands live the snowcock (a large gray turkey) and the black, yellow-beaked alpine jackdaw, which lives near glaciers and snowfields.

Among the reptiles found (up to the rocks of the Alpine belt) are lizards, grass snakes, copperheads, steppe and Caucasian vipers. Caucasian viper, endemic to Western Europe. Caucasus, found up to an altitude of 2500 m in clearings and overgrown screes. In the subalpine zone, the viper stays near rocks and screes. It can have different colors, but is characterized by a wide black zigzag stripe on the back. The snake is difficult to distinguish among dry fern leaves or stones covered with lichens.

There are trout in the rivers and some lakes.

To the West There are nature reserves in the Caucasus - Caucasian and Teberdinsky (with a branch in Arkhyz). Permission is required to stay there. In the gorges (B. Zelenchuk, Urup, B. Laba, etc.) reserves have been created where hunting, fishing and berry picking are prohibited.

The foothills and valleys, suitable for farming and gardening, are densely populated. Main view economic activity- cattle breeding. The movement of livestock to mountain pastures occurs in May-June, the season usually lasts until September. For temporary residence, traditional koshas are used - huts made of logs, stone, shingles or twigs and tents.

Meadows in valleys where there are roads are used for haymaking. The mountaineers value them, clear them of stones and fence them. Under no circumstances should you trample the grass, shortening the paths, set up a bivouac on it, or throw stones around.

There is a democratic federal legal state with a republican form of government.

The names Russian Federation and Russia are equivalent (Constitution Russian Federation, article 1).

The head of state is the President of the Russian Federation, elected for four years by citizens of the Russian Federation on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage.

State power in the Russian Federation is exercised on the basis of division into legislative, executive and judicial.

The legislative body is the Federal Assembly - the parliament of the Russian Federation, consisting of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.

Executive power in the Russian Federation is exercised by the Government of the Russian Federation, consisting of the Chairman of the Government, his deputies and federal ministers.

Moscow is the capital of the Russian Federation

Justice in the Russian Federation is administered only by the court.

Russia in form government system is a federation consisting of 83 equal subjects: 21 republics, 9 territories, 46 regions, 2 federal cities, 1 autonomous region, 4 autonomous districts.

Russian Federation - Russia is the world's largest state by area, occupying 17,098.2 thousand km2, which is approximately 1/8 of the land (not counting).

The total population of Russia at the beginning of 2008 was 142.7 million people, of which the urban population accounted for 73%, the rural population - 27%. Average density population - 8.3 people. per 1 km2.

The capital of the state is Moscow (10.4 million people, 2008)

The official language of the state is Russian.

The monetary unit is the ruble.

Russia is located in the northeastern part of the largest continent, occupying about 1/3 of its territory, including the eastern part of Europe and northern Asia.

The European part of Russia includes the entire territory lying west of the Urals (about 23% of the entire area of ​​the country); The Asian part of Russia accounts for over 75% of the area. However, almost 80% of Russia's population is concentrated in its European part (including the entire Urals).

Stella "Asia"

The main part of the territory of Russia is located between 70° N. w. and 50° N. sh.; about 20% of the territory lies beyond the Arctic Circle.

The total length of the borders of the Russian Federation is 60,932.8 km, of which 38,807.5 km are sea borders and 22,125.3 km are land borders. Greatest length land border The Russian Federation has with, Mongolia and. Maritime borders exist with Japan and.

The extreme northern point of the country - 81°51" N - is located on Cape Fligeli (Rudolph Island as part of the archipelago), and on the mainland - 77°43" N. w. - on Cape Chelyuskin (peninsula). The southernmost point - 41°10" N - is located 3 kilometers east of Mount Ragdan of the Main Caucasus Range. The easternmost point of the country is 169°02" W. - is located on Ratmanov Island in the Bering Strait, and on the mainland -169°40" W - on Cape Dezhnev (Chukchi Peninsula). The westernmost point is -19°38" E. d. - located in Kaliningrad region on the border with Poland. The length of Russia's territory from west to east is 9 thousand km, and from north to south - 4 thousand km.

There are 11 within Russia.

The modern borders of the Russian Federation were formed over a long historical period. Some of them were inherited from Russian Empire(the entire border with, borders with China and along most of their length). The current maritime border between Russia and the United States was also formed in the century before last, when the tsarist government sold Alaska and Aleutian Islands. The border with Mongolia was finally agreed upon after its separation from China already in Soviet time, although in fact it took shape earlier.

A significant part of the current Russian borders was established as a result of the Second World War.

New ones, amounting to about 12 thousand km, arose as a result of the collapse of the USSR in 1991. The new independent states retained the borders of the former union republics. Russian diplomacy has done a great deal of work on the legal and treaty formalization of new borders in accordance with the norms international law. In most cases, experts managed to resolve controversial issues and avoid their politicization.

Russian borders are extremely diverse in morphology. Some of them pass along natural boundaries - large water bodies, mountain ranges and watersheds. The total length of the country's river borders is 7.3 thousand km, and the lake borders are about 500 km. In the Caucasus, the border between Russia and and mainly runs along the Main Range, and the border with Kazakhstan partially runs along the Tigiretsky, Koksu, and Katunsky ridges.

The degree of development of the border strip depends on the morphological properties of the border and, in particular, on the degree of its coincidence with natural boundaries, which in turn largely determines the prerequisites for cross-border cooperation. The border territories of the Republic are distinguished by a high degree of economic and demographic development North Ossetia- Alania, Amur Region and Jewish Autonomous Region, the south of which continues the main zone of Russian settlement and is distinguished by more favorable natural conditions. The population density is relatively high in the borderlands of the Orenburg region, as well as in such old developed areas as in the Belgorod, Bryansk and Pskov regions and even in some mountainous regions - in the Altai Republic and the Karachay-Cherkess Republic. On the contrary, the steppe regions of a number of regions bordering Kazakhstan and some mountainous regions in the North Caucasus are sparsely populated.

At the very border or very close to it there are such big cities, like Sochi (331.0 thousand inhabitants), Orsk (246.1 thousand inhabitants), Blagoveshchensk (214.3 thousand inhabitants), Novotroitsk (110.6 thousand inhabitants) and others.

The geographical and geopolitical position of Russia is closely connected with its territorial structure and predetermines many features of settlement and economy. It is distinguished by its transcontinental nature (the territory of the country covers part of Europe and Asia) and interoceanic extension (Russia directly accesses three oceans - the basin, the Pacific and the Arctic oceans.

Most of sea ​​coast falls on the North Sea, extremely difficult for navigation and remote from populated areas. 8–10% of Russian citizens live directly by the sea - three times less than the average on the planet. However, Russia has begun to actively restore its merchant fleet, which ranks 13th in the world in terms of tonnage.

The most accessible regional seas of the Arctic, Atlantic and each have 5–6 regions, with the northern and Far Eastern ones occupying 10–11% of the country’s territory with 2–3% of the population and gross domestic product, and the western ones - 1.6%, respectively, 11. 6% and 9.4%. The main ports of Russia are located in them.

Russia is the northernmost state. It accounts for half of the world's northern regions, with an area of ​​11 million km2, or 64% of the country's territory. The population density of the North is only 1 person. per km2, but in total about 10 million people live there. Russia is home to the northernmost city in the world with a population of over 1 million people. () and the northernmost city in the world with a population of more than 100 thousand (Norilsk). In general, the northern geographical location means large costs for heating and lighting, the need to build durable production facilities that are protected from adverse natural factors. Permafrost (often in combination with) increases the cost of any construction, spreading over 60% of the territory of Russia.

Natural and climatic conditions are one of the reasons for the country’s geographic asymmetry: East End countries are more mountainous, the climate there is more severe: St. Petersburg and lie on the same latitude, but frosts on the shores of the Baltic last 4.5 months, and on the Sea of ​​Okhotsk - 7, average January temperatures are -8° and -20°C, respectively.

The share of the regions of the European part of Russia, including the Urals, in the entire territory of Russia is 1/4. 4/5 of the country's inhabitants live in these areas, and the vast majority of economic potential is concentrated here.

One of the consequences of the vastness of Russian spaces is the sparseness of the city network. The average distance between them in the populated area of ​​the European part of Russia is 45–75 km, beyond - about 250 km. Therefore, it is so important for Russia to have highly developed, cheap and efficient transport that ensures high mobility of the population. In a rarefied space, a special effect is achieved by the use of the concept of a settlement framework, based on the predominant development of cities located along transport axes - polyhighways. This saves transport costs and time spent moving between cities.

Due to the sparse population and geographical asymmetry, the deep inland geography of production in Russia, the transport intensity of the economy is high, i.e. the ratio of freight turnover of all types of mainline transport to the gross domestic product. At the beginning of this decade, it was 2.5–3 tkm per dollar of production, while in China, Australia, and Canada it was 0.7–1; in the USA - 0.55; in Europe - even 0.2–0.4 tkm. High energy intensity is functionally associated with this indicator. Average transportation distance railway- 1330 km, by air - more than 4500.

At the same time, the vast territory of Russia means abundance and diversity natural resources. Mineral resources constitute the main item of Russian export, providing up to 70% of foreign exchange earnings. In Russia, 20 thousand deposits of almost all types of minerals have been discovered, 37% have been put into operation. An important geopolitical role belongs to fuel and raw materials resources. Russia's share in the world's proven oil reserves is almost 10%, a third (first place in the world - 2.5 times more than in second place), coal - 12%. Russia ranks first in the world in production and.
High-latitude regions are especially rich in natural resources. The Russian sector of the Arctic includes about a third of its entire area. The Arctic is 90% of the recoverable hydrocarbon resources of the entire continental shelf of Russia, 80% of all-Russian proven gas reserves, deposits of many other minerals - apatites, nickel and copper, tungsten, platinum group metals, tin, gold, manganese, chromite and titanium ores. In the Arctic zone there are companies that belong to the world giants - Gazprom, Norilsk, oil producing companies. About 11% of Russia's national income and 22% of exports are produced here (with 1% of the population). The Northern sea ​​route- a transcontinental highway integrating the economic complex of the Far North and connecting the Far Eastern and Western regions of Russia.

The collapse of the USSR led to the formation of an enclave - the Kaliningrad region, now surrounded by EU countries - Poland and. Communications with it and maintaining the competitiveness of the region’s economy are an important geopolitical problem for Russia.

Russia maintains international relations with many in various fields (politics, economics, culture, healthcare, sports, etc.), as well as with various international organizations.

After the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (late 1991), Russia's position changed dramatically. Now it is firmly gaining the position of an equal partnership.

The priority direction of Russian foreign policy is the development of relations with the CIS countries. Russia continues to cooperate with organizations in which it is the legal successor of the USSR: UN (United Nations), OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe), CE (Council of Europe), EU (), APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Community), ASEAN (Association of Nations South-East Asia), OAU (Organization of African Unity), etc.

Russia views international economic organizations as one of the forms of cooperation between states. Russia joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF), became a member of the World Bank Group formed by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), participates in the activities of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), and cooperates with the International Energy Agency. Being the legal successor of the USSR, Russia cooperates with International organization labor (ILO). Russia has observer status in the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Current state of geodesy

The beginning of modern fifth period The development of geodesy coincides with the launch of the first artificial Earth satellites (AES). The emergence of satellites opened up new opportunities for solving scientific and practical problems of geodesy and marked the beginning of space geodesy. A striking example of this is the emergence of global positioning systems GPS and GLONASS. The parameters of the global ellipsoid were determined from satellite measurements.

Important scientific and technical achievement, which literally revolutionized the processes of performing geodetic work is the advent of computer technology. Their use allowed:

Create automated geodetic instruments, which increases labor productivity and reliability of measurement results;

Quickly mathematically process large volumes of geodetic measurement results;

Store large amounts of geodetic data in databases and quickly access them;

Present geodetic data in computer graphics formats that are convenient for consumers of geodetic data and solve their specific problems.

From geography we know that: The Earth is a sphere, almost two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered with water. The surface itself is uneven. There are plains and mountains, both on land and under water (Fig. 31).

Rice. 31. Physical surface of the Earth

The most high mountain located in Tibet. This is Chomolungma (Everest), 8848 meters above sea level. The deepest ocean trench is the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. Its depth is 10994 meters below sea level. Thus, the maximum difference in landforms on the planet is less than 19 km.

There are 6 continents on Earth (Eurasia, North America, South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica) and 4 oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic)

Rice. 32. Geographic map

The entire surface of the Earth or part of it can be depicted in the form of a geographical map (Fig. 32).

To describe the position of objects on the Earth's surface, there is a system of geographic coordinates - latitudes and longitudes, measured in degrees and minutes of arc (Fig. 32).

To do this, meridians and parallels are drawn along the surface of the Earth.

Meridians go from pole to pole. Meridians are counted from the prime meridian - Greenwich to the east (eastern longitude) and west (western longitude). St. Petersburg is located on the meridian 30° east.

The change of day and night is caused by the fact that the Earth rotates around its axis, completing a full revolution in 24 hours. The next date starts at midnight. But on different meridians midnight occurs at different times. If it is day in St. Petersburg, then in the USA it is night. It turns out that each meridian has its own time, which is called local time. For example, if in St. Petersburg there is 1 hour (1 h) of local time, then in Moscow it is approximately 1.5 h of local time. Local time used, for example, in making astronomical observations. Under normal conditions, such time counting is inconvenient. Therefore, standard time is used everywhere, and in the Russian Federation also maternity and summer time.

Each rotation of the planet adds one day, that is, after standard (maternity, summer) time is received, the next date comes. To coordinate dates around the world established date line, which runs approximately along the 180º meridian. Therefore, if, for example, September 16 comes at midnight in Alaska, then 3 hours later, September 17 comes at midnight in Chukotka.

Parallels run parallel to the equator. Latitude is determined by parallels. Latitudes are counted both north (northern latitude) and south (south latitude) of the equator. Accordingly, the latitude North Pole+90° N, latitude of the South Pole -90° S.

There are four specific parallels. Northern Tropic or the Tropic of Cancer - a parallel in which at noon on the day of the summer solstice on June 22, the Sun will be exactly at its zenith. It runs along the parallel 23º 27" N. South Tropic or the Tropic of Capricorn runs along the parallel 23º 27" S, respectively.

Arctic Circle- a parallel, north of which polar day and polar night can be observed. Its latitude is 66º 44" N, for South Arctic Circle- 66º 44" S respectively.

By geographical map can be determined geographical coordinates any object depicted on it. For example, from a fragment of a geographical map in Figure 33, you can approximately determine the coordinates of St. Petersburg as follows: latitude 60° N, longitude 30° E.

Rice. 33. Fragment of a geographical map

In addition, using a geographic map, you can determine the height (depth) of a point above sea level.

The latitude and longitude of a point are inherently global (global), absolute coordinates. Often there is a need for a point to describe its position relative to another point. Such coordinates are called relative. Consider Figure 34.

Rice. 34. Relative coordinates of points

There are two points on the geographical map: point 1 And point 2 . The first coordinate is the distance S 1-2 , which is determined in a known way - the distance on the map is measured, for example, with a ruler and the distance on the ground is calculated based on the scale of the map.

The second coordinate is azimuth. To determine it, you need to:

Draw a line on the map connecting both points;

Draw lines of meridians of points on the map (“meridian point 1” and “meridian point 2”);

Using a protractor, measure the angles between the meridians and the line connecting the points; The angle is measured from the north direction of the meridian clockwise.

The measured angles are the azimuths. It is believed that for point 1 azimuth A 1-2 is direct, A A 2-1 - reverse. For point 2 - vice versa.

Geographical terms and concepts. Geographical definitions. Absolute altitude– vertical distance from sea level to a given point.a.v. points located above sea level are considered positive, below - negative.
Azimuth– the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° in a clockwise direction.

Iceberg- a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or stranded.
Antarctic belt– descends from the South Pole to 70° S.
Anticyclone– an area of ​​high air pressure in the atmosphere.

Area– the area of ​​distribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.
Arctic belt– descends from the North Pole to 70° N latitude.
Archipelago- a group of islands.
Atmosphere– the air shell of the Earth.
Atoll– a coral island in the shape of a ring.
Beam- a dry valley in steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan- an accumulation of loose sand blown by the wind and not secured by vegetation.
Pool– an area of ​​depression that has no drainage on the surface.
Shore– a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending towards a water basin.
Biosphere- one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.
Breeze– local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers. Day breeze. (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night breeze (or coastal) - from land to sea.
"Brocken Ghost"(along Mount Brocken in the Harz massif, Germany) is a special type of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.
Wind– the movement of air relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows. Wind speed is determined in m/s, km/h, knots or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Air humidity– content of water vapor.
Watershed– the boundary between drainage basins.
Elevation- an area elevated above the surrounding area.
Waves– oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), fluctuations in atmospheric pressure (anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlands– a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, pointed peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights are more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems on the planet: the Himalayas, Mount Everest (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China - Karakorum, peak Chogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zone– shift natural areas in the mountains from the base to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographical coordinates– angular values ​​that determine the position of any point on globe relative to the equator and prime meridian.
Geospheres– shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.
Hydrosphere- the water shell of the Earth.
Mountain- 1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
Mountains– vast territories with absolute heights of up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their borders.
Mountain system– set mountain ranges and mountain ranges extending in one direction and having a common appearance.
Ridge– elongated, relatively low relief shape; formed by hills lined up in a row and merging at their bases.
Delta- an area where river sediment is deposited at the mouth of a river as it flows into the sea or lake.
Longitude geographical– the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the prime meridian; measured in degrees and counted from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley– negative linearly elongated relief shape.
Dunes- accumulation of sand on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
Bay- a part of the ocean (sea or lake) that extends quite deeply into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
The Earth's crust is the upper shell of the Earth.
Swell– a small, calm, uniform wave, disturbance of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere– high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source– the place where the river begins.
Canyon– a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. underwater - a deep valley within the underwater edge of the continent.
Karst– dissolution of rocks by natural waters and the phenomena associated with it. Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.
Climatic zone (or belt)- a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Scythe- a sandy or pebble ridge stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater- a depression created after a volcano explosion.
Ridge- a sharply rising large rise, one of the types of hills.
Avalanche- a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.
Lagoon- a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.
Geographic landscape– type of terrain, a relatively homogeneous area of ​​the geographical envelope.
Glacier- a mass of ice moving slowly under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, its maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total volume of ice is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
glacial period- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.
Forest-steppe- a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.
Forest-tundra- a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman– shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by a spit or bar.
Lithosphere- one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle- the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and core.
Mainland- a large piece of land surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.
Australia– in the Southern Hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents);
America North and South– in the Western Hemisphere, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;
Antarctica– in the central part of the South Polar Region (the southernmost and most high continent on the planet);
Africa– in the Southern Hemisphere (the second largest continent);
Eurasia– in the Northern Hemisphere (the most big continent Earth).
Meridians geographically e – imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; all their points lie at the same geographical longitude.
World Ocean- the entire body of water on Earth.
Monsoons are winds that periodically change their direction depending on the time of year: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
Highlands– a mountainous country, characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet- in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highland on Earth. Its base rests at absolute altitudes of 3500-5000 m or more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
Lowlands– the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m.
Lowland– a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazon Lowland with an area of ​​more than 5 million km2 in South America.
Lake- a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest lake in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Lake Baikal.
Oceans- parts of the World Ocean separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest ocean; Pacific Ocean(Great), greatest and deepest ocean on the ground.
Landslide– downslope displacement of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island- a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The largest island in the world is Greenland with an area of ​​2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height is the vertical distance between the top of a mountain and its foot.
Geographical parallels– imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect(atmospheric greenhouse effect) – protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Trade winds– constant winds in tropical areas, blowing towards the equator.
Plateau- 1) high plain, limited by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain top.
Plateau underwater– an elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos– a deep (wide) section of the river bed between the rifts.
Plateau- a vast area of ​​land with an altitude from 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.
Floodplain- part of a river valley that is flooded during high water.
Semi-desert- a transitional landscape that combines the features of a steppe or desert.
Earth's hemisphere- half of the earth’s sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160° east. and 20°W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or according to other characteristics.
Geographic poles– points of intersection of the Earth’s rotation axis with the earth’s surface. Magnetic points of the Earth are points on the earth’s surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where a magnetic compass is not applicable for orientation by cardinal directions.
Arctic Circles(North and South) - parallels located 66° 33′ north and south of the equator.
Threshold– a shallow area in a river bed with a large slope and fast current.
Foothills– hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairies- vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebbs and flows– periodic fluctuations in the water level of seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Deserts– vast spaces with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe is the Sahara in the North. Africa.
Plains– vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on Earth is the Eastern European, or Russian, with an area of ​​more than 6 million km2 and the West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of ​​about 3 million km2.
River- constant water flow, flowing in the riverbed. Amazon is a river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7,000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in basin area (7,180 m2) and in water content; Mississippi - largest river North America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief– a set of various irregularities of the earth’s surface of various origins; are formed through a combination of impacts on the earth's surface by endogenous and exogenous processes.
Bed- the deepened part of the valley bottom occupied by a river.
Savannah- a tropical and subtropical landscape in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or groups of trees.
North Pole- the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the surface of the Earth in the North. hemispheres.
Sel- a mud or mud-stone stream that suddenly passes through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado(American name tornado) – vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Srednegorye– mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are the most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and northeast of Siberia. Almost all of them are occupied Far East, eastern China and the Indochina Peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope- an inclined area on land or seabed. Windward slope - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow. Leeward slope – facing the direction opposite to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe– treeless spaces with an arid climate, characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining in the south with the savannas of the tropical belt.
Stratosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical zones(subtropics) - located between tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts– located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.
Taiga– zone of temperate coniferous forests. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon- the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.
Takyr- a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements– movements of the earth’s crust that change its structure and shape.
Tropics- 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, located 23°30° north and south of the equator: the tropics of Capricorn (northern tropic) - the tropics of the northern hemisphere and the tropics of Cancer (southern tropic) - the tropics of the southern hemisphere; 2) natural belts.
Tropical zones– located between subtropical and subequatorial zones.
Troposphere– lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra– treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Temperate zones– located in temperate latitudes.
Temperate latitudes– located between 40° and 65° N. and between 42° and 58° S.
Hurricane– a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m/s.
Estuary– the place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.
Atmospheric front- a zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord)- a narrow, deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill– a small height and gently sloping hill.
Cyclones– area of ​​low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami – Japanese name huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world– regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf– continental shelf with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographical– the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and counted from the equator to the north and south.
Squall– a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.
Calm- calm, calm.
Storm– very strong wind, accompanied by strong rough seas.
Equator- an imaginary line connecting points on the globe equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere- an area of ​​outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion– destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole– the point of intersection of the earth’s axis with the earth’s surface in the Southern Hemisphere.
Earth's core– the central part of the planet with a radius of about 3470 km.

Economic and social geography

Enclave- part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and having no access to the sea.
Urban agglomeration- a group of closely located cities, united by close labor, cultural, social, and infrastructure ties into a complex system.
Trade balance- the difference between goods exported from the country (export of the country) and imported (import).
Population reproduction- a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase that ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.
Geographical environment- part of the earth’s nature with which society interacts at a given stage of historical development.
Geopolitics- dependence of the state’s foreign policy on geographic location and other physical and economic geographic factors.
Global Population Issues- a set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all humanity, creating a threat to its present and future; United efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.
Demographic policy- a system of administrative, economic, propaganda measures with the help of which the state influences natural population growth in the direction it desires.
Demographic revolution- transition from one type of population reproduction to another.
Demography- a spider about population, the patterns of its reproduction.
Natural population growth- the difference between the birth rate and death rate per 1000 inhabitants per year.
Immigration- entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.
Import- import of goods into the country from other countries.
Industrialization is the creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, the transformation of the country from an agricultural to an industrial one.
International economic integration- the process of establishing deep and sustainable economic relations between countries, based on their implementation of coordinated interstate policies.
Intensive development path- increase in production volumes due to additional capital investments in existing production facilities.
Infrastructure- a set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for the normal functioning and provision of Everyday life population.
Conversion- transfer of military production to the production of civilian products.
Megalopolis (metropolis)- the largest form of settlement that arose as a result of the fusion of several neighboring urban agglomerations.
Intersectoral complex- a group of industries that produce homogeneous products or have close technological connections.
Population migration- movement of the population across the territory associated with a change of place of residence.
National economy- interaction between people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.
Science intensity- the level of costs for research and development in the total costs of production.
Scientific and technological revolution (STR)- a radical qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.
Nation- a historical and social community of people formed in a certain territory in the process of development of social market relations of the industrial type and inter-district (international) division of labor.
Industry- a set of enterprises producing homogeneous products or providing homogeneous services.
Socio-economic region- the territory of a country, including several administrative units, differing from others in the features of historical development, geographical location, natural and labor resources, specialization of the economy.
Zoning- division of territory into districts according to a number of characteristics.
Regional policy- a set of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to the rational distribution of production across the territory and equalization of people’s living standards.
Resource availability- the relationship between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use.
Free economic zone- a territory with a favorable EGP, where preferential tax and customs regimes are established in order to attract foreign capital, special conditions pricing.
Production specialization- production by enterprises of individual parts and assemblies, certain types of products, performance of one or more technological operations.
Territory specialization- concentration in the area of ​​production of certain products or certain services
Structure of the national economy- the relationship between various spheres and industries in terms of product value, number of employees or the value of fixed production assets.
Suburbanization- the process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to an outflow of population and places of employment from their central parts.
Territorial division of labor- specialization of individual regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.
Labor resources- part of the country's population capable of working and possessing the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.
Urbanization- the process of urban growth and the spread of urban lifestyle to the entire network of populated areas.
Service- work aimed at meeting the needs of the individual consumer.
Economic-geographical location (EGP)- the position of an object in relation to others geographical objects which is of economic importance to him.
Economically active population- part of the country's population, a comma in the national economy, and the unemployed, actively job seekers and ready to work.
Export- export of goods to other countries.
Extensive development path- increase in production volumes due to quantitative growth of production units.
Emigration- departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long period.
Power system- a group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.
Ethnos- a historically established stable community of people that has a unique internal structure and an original pattern of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the “native” landscape.