Pocket guide for tourists. The simplest natural obstacles and ways to overcome them

Techniques for overcoming a slope (ascent, traverse, descent) with self-belaying on a rope railing.

In the practice of mountain tourism, to overcome objectively dangerous slopes, tourists often use the railing belay method - they ascend and descend the slope with self-belay while moving along vertical (sloping) railings; movement along a slope (slope traverse) with self-belay on horizontal railings. Of course, before the group begins to move, the railings must be secured to the slope by the leader (the first participant to overcome the slope). In this case, the leader passes dangerous sections of the slope using mutual belay. Our task does not include a detailed consideration of the organization of leader insurance. Necessary and sufficient information for you about the technique of mutual belay on slopes is presented in the lecture “Tourist belay technique” and in the subsequent section of this lesson.

How is a tourist self-belayed when moving up a slope on vertical railings? In this lesson, we exclusively consider the technique of climbing and descending a fixed rope on mountain slopes of medium steepness, along which tourists move at a walk. In this case, the railing rope serves both as a means of insurance and as a means of additional support, facilitating movement along the slope. In general, overcoming such slopes does not present any significant technical difficulty.

When moving along vertical railings, the tourist provides his own insurance using a self-belaying loop made of a specialized rope (the so-called cord with a diameter of 6-8 mm with a diameter of the railing rope of 10-12 mm) (Fig. 15). The loop, on the one hand, is connected to the tourist’s personal fall arrest system (ISS), on the other hand, it is tied to the railing with a gripping knot. The self-belay loop can be connected to the ISS (or only to the chest harness, gazebo) using a double conductor assembly (see above) and a carabiner. To tie the lanyard loop to the railing, depending on the condition of the rope, one or another grasping knot is used: Prusik knot, Bachmann knot, Austrian grasping knot. We have already mentioned earlier (see the previous section of the lesson) that the Prusik knot is actively used in tourism for organizing self-insurance, but it has its limitations (often it is not fixed on the railing rope if the tourist falls during descents or ascents along complex, steep slopes). However, for organizing self-insurance on the technically simple slopes we are considering, it is quite acceptable. The Austrian grasping knot is more reliable and versatile, and the Bachmann knot, unlike the Prusik knot, is well fixed on an icy and wet rope. After connecting the lanyard loop to the rope, the hiker moves up the slope, leaning on the rope with one hand (below the gripping knot), and with the other hand pushing the weakened gripping knot along the railing (Fig. 15).

How is a tourist self-belayed when moving down a slope along vertical railings? To descend tourists down a slope of medium steepness, requiring the organization of insurance, the technique of rappelling along a fixed rope in a sports manner is often used. In this case, the railing rope, as when climbing along the railing, performs two functions - it serves as a support for the tourist; serves as a means of insurance.

Support on the railing when descending in a sporting manner is created by the friction of the rope passing through the tourist’s arms and back (Fig. 16, 17). It is important that the tourist’s hands are protected with gloves or mittens to avoid injury to the skin from the rope moving through the hands. This technique of working with a rope allows you to control the speed of descent down the slope and increases the stability of the descent. At the same time, relying on a railing rope only reduces the likelihood of a tourist falling or falling, but does not completely eliminate it. Therefore, organizing self-insurance for a tourist when descending an objectively dangerous slope is mandatory! We have already discussed above the method of organizing self-belay for a tourist while moving along vertical railings (connecting the tourist to the railing with a self-belaying loop made from a cord and a gripping knot).

A technique for descending vertical railings in a sporting manner. The rope passes behind the tourist’s back and performs a supporting function. Self-belaying is carried out using a loop of cord tied on the railing with a gripping knot and connected to the tourist’s safety system.

Technique for descending a railing rope in a sporting way. The rope passes behind the tourist’s back (performs a supporting function). Drawing kindly provided by Lyudmila Sudanova.

Attention! From a safety point of view, when climbing and descending vertical railings, the following requirements for organizing self-belay must be observed.

· The length of the lanyard loop should not be excessive, otherwise if the tourist falls, the tugging force on the cord will increase (it may not withstand it), and if the tourist hangs on the lanyard, the grasping knot will be so far away that it will be difficult to reach and loosen it.

· The gripping knot, when moving along the rope, should always be located higher up the slope relative to the tourist himself. Then, in the event of a breakdown, the moment of “flight” of the tourist and the significant jerking forces exerted on the cord are eliminated. When a tourist falls, the self-belay loop should be immediately loaded and tightened on the railing rope. The rated maximum breaking force of the cord is 600-700 kgf. The dynamic force on the cord, acting, for example, when a body weighing 80 kg falls and a jerk factor of 1.5-2 is close to this value and will most likely lead to its rupture.

· When a tourist moves along a slope, the gripping unit should move easily along the railing rope, but it cannot be held in the fist. When it breaks, the knot, clamped by the hand, slips along with it, without being tightened on the railing.

How is a tourist self-belaying performed when traversing a slope along the railings? When a tourist moves along horizontal railings located along a slope, the principle of organizing self-insurance is special. The depth of a fall of a tourist connected to a stretched horizontal railing during a fall is limited by the length of the sagging of the railing rope under the weight of the person who has fallen. If the sections of the railing between the points of their fastening are relatively short (for example, up to 10 m) and there is no significant “slack” in the rope (the rope is stretched, although not too tightly), then the depth of the tourist’s fall in the event of a fall will be relatively small (for example, up to 2 m ). In contrast to the fall of a leader climbing a slope with a bottom belay, when falling on a horizontal railing there is practically no effect of free fall: the fallen tourist immediately “loads” the correctly fixed railing rope and hangs on it.

Taking into account the above, a rope of considerable length hung along the slope should be secured not only at its ends, but also at a number of intermediate points (the so-called intermediate points for securing horizontal railings). Sections of the railing (for example, up to 5-10 m) between the fastening points will be designated as separate “branches of the railing”. The tourist is connected to the horizontal railings using the ISS self-belay lanyard (made from the main rope or a tape of equal strength) and a carabiner. The tourist thereby moves along the slope, fastened to the railing rope with a carabiner sliding along it (walks on a kind of “leash”). When moving from one branch of the railing to another (from one railing to another), it is important for the tourist not to lose the insurance for a moment and to be constantly connected to the rope. For this purpose, when moving along horizontal railings, two lanyards are usually used. At the point of transition from one branch of the handrail to another, first the free lanyard mustache is connected to the next branch and only then disconnected from the previous branch.

Self-belaying technique when traversing a slope along horizontal railings. Two lanyards are used to pass through the intermediate point of fastening the railing (hook) without losing the lanyard

Concluding the section devoted to the self-insurance of tourists while moving along the railings, we once again focus your attention on the correctness of its organization. When driving along a dangerous slope on a railing, a tourist must follow the following safety rules.

· Fasten yourself to the rope on each section of the railing (with a sliding carabiner on horizontal railings, or with a lanyard loop tied with a catching knot on vertical and inclined railings).

· When moving from one branch of the railing to another, first fasten yourself to the next branch, and only then unfasten from the branch you are using (without losing your insurance for a second in an objectively dangerous place).

· Only one person can move on one branch of the railing (between the fixed ends of the railing rope). Otherwise, if one tourist falls, there will be a danger that the second will fall, and the points at which the railings are secured (for example, rock hooks) may not withstand the forces of the fall (fly out of the slope).

Non-explosive barriers include anti-tank ditches, needels, scarps, counter-scarps, wire fences and nets, snow banks, rubble in forests and populated areas, landslides in the mountains, barriers, barricades, lanes on rivers and reservoirs, ice on roads, icing of banks and stingrays, as well as water and electrified barriers.

Anti-tank ditches, scarps and counter-scarps tanks, armored personnel carriers and artillery overcome the enemy over bridges or passages .

Transitions They are set up using tanks with BTUs, track-laying machines (bulldozers), and engineering vehicles to clear barriers by filling the barriers with soil.

For devices transition through the anti-tank ditch explosively it is extremely important to undermine four charges of 25 kg each laid on the ground surface or four charges of 6-8 kg each , installed into the ground to a depth of 1 m.

Rice. Making a passage in an anti-tank ditch using an explosive method:

a - charges placed on the surface of the soil; b - charges installed in the ground to a depth of 1 m;/ - charges of 25 kg; 2 - charges of 6-8 kg

Passages in needfuls are doing explosion of concentrated charges . The charge mass for each head, based on the material from which it is made, should be: from rail - 0.5-1 kg; from channel, I-beam - 3-5 kg; from pipes - 5-10 kg; from logs - 0.5-1 kg; made of reinforced concrete - 3-5 kᴦ.

To do passage in the forest rubble appoint a team consisting of at least a squad, reinforced with a tank with a BTU, a BAT track-laying vehicle or an engineering clearing vehicle, as well as two or three chainsaws.

The passage is made by moving fallen trees to the sides from its axis. The department is divided into two calculations. One of them, consisting of 3 people, conducts reconnaissance and mine clearance, and the second clears and marks the passage.

To speed up the clearing of the rubble and the destruction of mines installed in it, it is extremely important to sequentially, every 6-8 m, carry out explosions of concentrated (20-25 kg each) or elongated charges with a linear mass of 6-8 kg/m and a length of 6 m, placed on or under fallen trees. The width of the passage in the obstruction for one-way traffic must be at least 4 m.

Clearing rubble in populated areas produced mainly by bulldozers or tracklayers. The width of the passage for one-way traffic is at least 4 m. When clearing streets in a destroyed populated area, it must not be allowed for dilapidated buildings that are in danger of collapse to remain near the passage being made. Such buildings are brought down by explosive or mechanical means.

The rubble is being cleared moving debris of buildings forming a blockage beyond the intended passage . Large fragments are pre-crushed by explosions of overhead charges of 2-5 kᴦ. If the rubble is deep, they are not cleared. The surface of the rubble in the strip of the intended passage is leveled and entrance and exit ramps are arranged. In the same way, they overcome the rubble of fallen rock on mountain roads.

To overcome barriers in the forest and barricades, passages are made in them by undermining and pulling away logs. The fragments of beams, stones and soil are moved by a bulldozer to the sides from the axis of the passage.

When clearing rubble and destruction in an area with radioactive or chemical contamination of the area, personnel perform tasks wearing personal protective equipment. The commander determines the length of stay of personnel in the contaminated area in order to prevent radiation doses above established standards.

Passages in wire fences done with tanks (except for subtle obstacles), explosively and manually using scissors or an entrenching tool.

To make passages in wire fences using an explosive method, elongated charges are used. Their length is no less than the width of the fence. The charges are placed under the wire near the stakes or on the wire and exploded. As a result of the explosion of an elongated charge with a linear mass of 4-6 kg/m, a passage 4-5 m wide is formed in the barrier.

Wire barriers can also be overcome by constructing transitions by throwing mats of branches or straw, boards, poles, ladders and tires onto the wire.

In inconspicuous and portable wire barriers, passages are made by pulling apart the barriers in separate links using cats and hooks attached with cables to tanks, tractors, etc.

Electrified wire fences detect units of engineering troops equipped with special instruments; in the absence of such units, these barriers are detected as follows:

By external signs - the presence of porcelain insulators, rubber and other insulating materials on the stakes; by the sparks visible at night, jumping from the wire onto the grass in contact with it; by the presence of burnt grass;

Throwing (from a safe distance) a piece of wire over the fence so that one end touches the fence and the other the ground; in this case, sparks and smoke appear at the end of the wire touching the ground when the soil or grass cover is wet;

Using a telephone set included in a cable located at right angles to the fence and connecting two ground electrodes: one no closer than 3 m, the other 50-200 m from the fence; If there is current in the barrier, a buzzing sound is heard in the phone.

Electrified barriers are overcome along passages or by de-energizing them and then overcoming them like ordinary wire barriers.

The personnel of the engineering troops units making passages must wear protective equipment selected based on the power supply circuits of the electrified barriers. The passages are made by cutting wire with special scissors, pulling the wire away with tanks (tractors) and by explosive means.

The width of passages in electrified barriers should be 2-3 m greater than in non-electrified ones.

Overcoming non-explosive barriers - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Overcoming non-explosive barriers” 2017, 2018.

Movement order and methods of overcoming obstacles

Successful travel is largely determined by the ability of tourists to correctly distribute their time and energy, choose the most rational pace and order of movement of the group, master methods of movement across various terrain and techniques for overcoming obstacles. The safe passage of the route and, ultimately, the success of the entire journey depend on the clear and successful solution of these problems. Below are tips on organizing the mode and order of movement during travel, and recommendations are given on the main ways to overcome obstacles in various types of tourism.

WALKING TRAVEL

Mode and schedule of the hiking day

Hiking mode.
Must provide the necessary rhythm in alternating loads and rest. The transition mode usually consists of 40-50 minutes of movement and 5-10 minutes of rest at small rest stops. Although the mode of travel depends significantly on the area of ​​travel, season and other factors, the first half of the day usually accounts for up to two-thirds of the day's journey, which takes from 3 to 5 walking hours. It is recommended to set out on the route earlier and stop for the night earlier. In the middle of the day, tourists need a long rest and a hot lunch. In cold or rainy weather, the lunch break can be replaced with a short snack, but with hot tea from a thermos.
Sample daily routine
7.00-8.00 - getting up, exercising, washing, bathing, cleaning the place to stay for the night.
8.00-8.30. - breakfast, preparation for the transition.
8.30-12.30 - transfer along the route.
12.30-16.00 - big break (lunch, rest, community service, outdoor games).
16.00-18.00 - transition along the route.
18.00-20.00 - preparation for overnight stay, dinner.
20.00-23.00 - free time.
23.00 - 7.00 - sleep.

Movement speed

The pace of the walking group. It is usually determined by terrain and weather conditions and allows you to travel 3.5-4.5 km per hour. In a group of novice tourists, the hike leader must set the pace based on the rule: match the pace of the weakest. If the group is heterogeneous in its composition (which is, in principle, undesirable), we must try to equalize the forces of tourists by varying the loading of backpacks, as well as periodically sending more prepared participants ahead for orientation, reconnaissance or choosing a resting place.
Rhythm of movement- one of the main means of preserving the strength of tourists and increasing their performance. On a good road, rhythm is expressed in a constant speed, and in rough terrain - in a constant number of steps in equal periods of time. To maintain the rhythm of the body’s work, the tourist’s stride is lengthened on easy descents, and shortened on difficult sections and climbs. In this case, the usual speed of pedestrians on descents will increase to 5-6 km per hour or decrease on climbs to 1.5-2 km per hour.
You need to change the rhythm smoothly, gradually picking up speed at the beginning of the movement and slowing it down 3-5 minutes before the end. In case of unexpected sudden stops, it is useful to “tread water” for a minute or two at a steady pace in order to gradually relieve the load on the heart and respiratory organs.

Group movement order

The order of movement of the marching group,
Tourists move in a column of one person at a time. There is a guide ahead, who chooses the path and monitors timely stops for rests. An experienced tourist is also placed at the rear. His duty is to help those who are lagging behind and not leave anyone behind. If someone falls behind, he uses a set signal (shouting, whistling, etc.) to let the leader know about the need for an unscheduled stop or reduction in speed. The rest of the group members on simple sections of the route can choose their place in the column arbitrarily. On difficult sections of the path, it is recommended to place weak participants immediately behind the guide, or even better, next to stronger tourists, so that the latter can provide the necessary assistance to their comrades. When moving along the route, it is not allowed for tourists to be with each other beyond the limits of visual or voice communication.
The place of the leader in the hiking group.
Should ensure ease of group management and safety of its movement. The manager can be recommended to follow the guide immediately, from time to time helping him find the way and suggesting the right decisions. On difficult and dangerous sections (crossing, swamp, scree), the leader himself checks their passability and does not go ahead, insuring tourists, until the whole group reaches an easy section. He should do the same when tourists are swimming in an unfamiliar body of water, when boarding a vehicle, etc.

Line of movement

The choice of route when traveling on foot is determined by the terrain, vegetation and the presence of trails. Open spaces of meadows, uncultivated fields, as well as small copses, pure pine forests and other easily passable areas should be passed along the azimuth. It is better to cross dense forests with undergrowth, rugged terrain, and thickets of bushes along paths, even if they deviate somewhat from the desired direction. If the route passes through the taiga or forest where there are no paths, then you should choose the path along the rivers. This is especially necessary in swampy areas, where the driest soils run in a narrow strip along watercourses. In the forested middle mountains, the line of movement is usually chosen along gentle ridges: it is better to navigate there, it is more difficult to get lost and, most importantly, it is easier to walk than below, in the gloomy gorges. When going out onto open areas of grassy slopes, mountain meadows, and screes, you should prefer convex forms of relief for movement. They are safer in terms of rockfalls and landslides and provide the most picturesque view of the surrounding area.

Overcoming steep slopes

To successfully navigate steep slopes, it is important to have shoes with ridged, non-slip soles, as well as master some walking techniques. When lifting boots, it is recommended to place them on the entire sole, and not on the toe. At the same time, one must try to maintain a horizontal position of the foot, using each firmly lying stone, a slight convexity of the slope, which is stepped on with the heel of the boot. The steeper the slope, the more you need to spread your toes. During a long climb, it is recommended to climb “serpentine”: alternately with your left or right side to the slope. When moving along a grassy slope along it (traversing), the foot of the leg located above must be placed on the entire sole across the slope, and the other foot must be turned with its toe at a certain angle downward. The descent along a good path and with a light backpack can be done by well-trained tourists by running. At the same time, the legs, almost without bending, are thrown far forward, and the body is tilted back somewhat. On steeper sections they descend on bent legs.

Forest thickets, rubble

Through forest thickets, dense bushes or tall, hard grass they move in a compact group at intervals that ensure safety. Everyone must carefully monitor the person in front and repeat his movements. It is necessary to hold the moving branches so that they do not hit the person walking behind. To protect from twigs and branches, wear long sleeves (a full storm suit is desirable). One hand is placed forward to protect the face and eyes from branches. When overcoming fallen trees and forest rubble blocking the path, you should not jump over, but carefully step over and climb over obstacles. We must remember that the trunks of rotten trees are unstable and are often covered with very slippery rotten bark. It is not recommended to have various “clinging” objects on your backpack and clothes: a bucket or pot hanging from the backpack, an ax sticking out of the backpack pocket. Even an ordinary woolen ski cap with a pom-pom will touch the vegetation and delay the movement of the tourist.

Wetlands involved

Wetlands on the route are usually crossed along paved paths - gats. If they are not there, then in a safe swamp (preliminary consultation with local residents) tourists move by stepping over or jumping from hummock to hummock. Everyone should have a pole in their hands, which serves as a support, a probe for measuring depth and a means of self-belaying in case of a fall. When crossing the rafting, the interval between people is increased to 5-8 m. To reduce the pressure of the tourist’s foot on the swampy soil, you can use stepping wicker “skis” or simply tie easily removable pieces of plywood to your shoes.

Crossing with luggage

Water obstacles in simple walking journeys, as a rule, are overcome by ready-made bridges and treasures. If the latter do not have railings and are unstable, then an experienced tourist crosses them first. He will try out the crossing and organize insurance for other members of the group using a pole or hand. To better maintain balance when moving luggage, everyone should have a long stick.

Rice. Crossing with luggage.
It is most difficult to stay on a log if it swings in a horizontal plane. With a few springy squats, these vibrations can usually be extinguished or transferred to the vertical plane, which causes less inconvenience for tourists. Sometimes a rope railing is pulled next to the luggage at shoulder height or a pole is held.

Fording

Fording without a rope.
Fording on rivers with a relatively calm current can be different: alone with a pole, which is used to push against the current; together, standing facing each other and placing outstretched arms on the shoulders of a friend; in a group of 3-4 people (“Tajik way”), standing as a wall so that the strongest and tallest tourists are on the edges, or in a circle, hugging each other’s shoulders. In any case, the crossing site is chosen after preliminary reconnaissance on the widest possible, and therefore shallower, section of the river. If there are large stones sticking out of the water, you need to go slightly downstream of them, where the impact force of the stream is weakened. It is necessary to cross a river with a rocky bottom or a bottom whose character is unknown with shod feet, taking off any clothing that can increase the water pressure. Each step should be taken carefully, feeling the bottom with your foot.
Fording with ropes.
It is carried out on more turbulent rivers. The most physically fit and experienced tourist crosses the water stream first. His task is to transfer to the opposite bank the end of the main rope, which is attached to it with a bowline knot.

So that the tourist can swim freely if the current knocks him off his feet, the bowline is tied not on the chest, but on the back. In addition, an auxiliary rope is fastened to the tourist with a carabiner, the other end of which is held in the hands of two belayers, standing on the bank downstream. The handing out of ropes after the person crossing must be done carefully so as not to interfere with his movement and so that the ropes do not rinse in the water. The transferred end is securely attached on the shore to a tree, rocks, the base of a strong bush or to artificial supports made of stakes, stone aurochs, etc. Then, using an auxiliary rope with gripping knots, the main rope is pulled tightly above the surface of the water. Having attached themselves to such railings using a chest harness and a carabiner (the distance from the chest to the main rope should be shorter than the length of the arms), tourists take turns crossing the river. You have to move sideways, fingering the rope with your hands, facing towards the current. Body for better resistance to water pressure. Fording with insurance. should be folded back. In case of a breakdown, the tourist is pulled ashore with the help of auxiliary ropes (forward or backward.). Since such a crossing usually lasts a long time, it is recommended to light a fire on the shore to heat and dry things.

Crossing by swimming

Crossing by swimming is possible on a calm river and for those who know how to float well. Convenient places for it are deep areas with a gentle slope of the riverbed. Counting in advance for drift down the river, tourists swim at an angle to the current. You should not try to cross the obstacle in the shortest straight line.
It is recommended to put your things on a light raft and push it through the water in front of you. In some cases, the first tourist is crossed by swimming, guarded by a rope. Then it is used to drag the raft and help other group members, who can belay themselves by holding on to any non-sinking object on the water - a log, a board, a bundle of brushwood, or a backpack securely packed in waterproof material and tightly tied.

Ski trip

Features of the mode, pace, movement order

Daily regime.
On a ski trip, it depends on the length of daylight, frost and the need to spend more time (than on hiking routes) setting up camp and getting ready in the morning. In December - January, as well as at other times when temperatures are low, it is necessary to deviate from the usual regime and set out on the route no earlier than 9-10 a.m., and also reduce short rests.
Pace,
When moving on a finished ski track, the overall pace is determined by the speed of the slowest skier. Sudden jerks should be avoided: periodic overheating and cooling in the cold is dangerous to health, and on the route there are not always conditions to change and dry clothes soaked with sweat. When moving on virgin snow, the pace of the group is determined by the speed of laying the ski tracks.
The order of movement
When laying a ski track, several options for organizing traffic are possible. The most common ones are with periodic change of guide, which occurs with a significant thickness of snow cover every 1-2 minutes. If it is difficult to track the ski track, and there are weak comrades in the group, then they should be placed through one and change two guides at a time.
In a large group, it is advisable to select a special team of the strongest tourists to track the ski tracks. It is possible, by dividing the group in half, to organize alternate movement of subgroups: while one is resting at a small rest, the other is laying a ski track. Then the rested tourists overtake their comrades, and they stop to rest.
The order of movement on the ski slope must ensure the safety of the group and at the same time take into account the technical capabilities of each skier. Before the descent, the leader determines the path, the order of descent of tourists and outlines a collection point under the slope. If the slope is large and closed, then you need to go down in stages with intermediate stops. In order to avoid falling (quite common for the third, fourth and subsequent tourists, when with sharp braking they are “carried out” along the ski track to virgin soil) and to speed up the movement on a safe slope, you can descend on several parallel ski tracks. When passing slopes where there is no complete guarantee of their avalanche safety, it is necessary to place an observer.

Line of movement

The line of movement in winter travel is more straight than on foot or by boat. In many cases, it is possible to make a path straight through frozen swamps and ponds. However, you should not build a simple hike only by azimuth. It is better to use any passing ski track or sled road convenient for movement. If there are no ski tracks or roads, you can move along clearings, open forests, and river beds. We must always remember that it is easier to go where the snow is less deep. Behavior in an avalanche zone.
In winter, the avalanche danger increases significantly. This should be taken into account when choosing a line of movement and not planning transitions through concave forms of relief - snow funnels, avalanche chutes, under ridges with overhanging cornices and in general along all slopes where there is a sufficient amount of snow in an unstable state. Slopes with a steepness of 15 to 60° can be dangerous for avalanches if the snow depth on them is more than 30 cm. While in such an area, tourists should not go out on the route if the forecast is unfavorable - sudden warming or cooling, drop in pressure, during and at first a day or two after snowfall, blizzard, rain, hairdryer. When moving along a slope, you must avoid crossing it, move only up or down along the line of the slope, remembering that concave slopes are safest in their upper part, and convex slopes in their lower part. Longitudinal depressions on the slope - couloirs and chutes - if it is impossible to bypass them, it is recommended to overcome them in the narrowest places, one at a time and with reliable insurance. In general, you have to move at the highest speed in an avalanche zone. At the same time, the leader needs to ensure that tourists avoid sharp turns on skis, falls - anything that can cause shaking of the slope.

Ascents, descents, braking, turns

Lifts. On gentle slopes, it is recommended to use a stepping step with a slam to better grip the skis with the snow. On steep and long slopes, tourists move in zigzags (“serpentine”). At the corners of zigzags, turn with a swing turn around the foot, and the turn must begin with the outer ski in relation to the slope. On short sections of the route, herringbone or half-herringbone ascents are possible. On very steep places, the only way to climb is a “ladder”. When lifting with a load, the skillful use of pole supports plays an important role.
Skiing technique. For beginner tourists, who, as a rule, have unedged skis and bindings that do not fix the heel on the loading area, the ski descent technique is limited to the use of the main stance and periodic braking on closed, steep or rolled out areas with a “plow” or “stop.” Compared to an ordinary skier, a tourist loaded with a backpack has to spread his legs wider on the descent, put one ski further forward and try to fit into the uneven terrain as smoothly as possible. To prevent the backpack from moving on your back under the influence of inertia and changing the position of the center of gravity, it is useful to fasten it to your belt with a special belt. It is better to move on long slopes in zigzags with turns from the “stop”; on a collapsing crust - with turns by stepping over or in place around the foot. On very steep slopes, it is convenient to descend by sliding sideways on the edges of the skis. If the slope is overgrown with forest with dense undergrowth, then it is better to descend at a walking pace - a “ladder”. In some cases, if there is a danger of hitting a friend, a tree or a stone, you must be able to apply emergency braking, deliberately falling backwards to the side or simply sitting down in the snow.
Descents on deep loose snow, On such slopes, tourists must take the appropriate stance (normal - with uniform movement, front - with accelerated, rear - with slow motion) and be sure to remove the toes of the skis from under the snow. Both skis must be evenly loaded. Otherwise, one of them will begin to bury itself in the snow and the tourist will lose his balance. For a beginner, it is easiest to descend in an oblique descent stance, almost across the slope with a counterslope, which will allow him to easily brake for a further turn on the spot.

Overcoming obstacles

If on the skier’s path there is a ditch, a small stream, fallen tree trunks, or hedges, then they step over them sideways, having first placed the skis parallel to the obstacle. Without taking off your skis, you can cross over a higher obstacle if you sit on it, support yourself with poles on both sides and, raising your legs, move them simultaneously to the other side. In the forest, you should not drive close to trees - you can easily fall into the loose snow near the trunk or, conversely, in the pre-spring season you can end up on protruding roots or ice. When driving downhill into the forest on a sunny day, you should slow down, as the sharp transition from light to shadow causes temporary blinding of the skier. It is also necessary to slow down on slopes on icy ski tracks, well-trodden roads, and windy areas. When overcoming bumps and ridges on the move, the skier must squat a little on his skis, and when crossing a wide ditch or ravine, on the contrary, he must straighten up. These movements must be done smoothly enough so that the inertia of the backpack does not cause a fall. Overcoming frozen bodies of water. To avoid getting on thin ice, the path should be chosen away from those areas where running water flows into or out of a lake or river. Preliminary reconnaissance requires the place of descent onto the ice, since the ice sag at the coastal edge due to the winter decrease in water level. When crossing an unknown and untrustworthy body of water, it is recommended to walk at a distance of 5-8 m. The guide hits the ice with sticks to determine its reliability for the movement of the entire group.

ORDER AND PACE OF MOVEMENT OF THE GROUP:
Upon arrival at the place where movement along the route begins, the leader, according to the list (in the route sheet), checks the composition of the participants in the hike, inquires about everyone’s well-being, and inspects the equipment. He talks about the features of the route, possible obstacles along the way, and reminds of the need to comply with safety and environmental rules, discipline, and the established traffic order. At the same time, a leader and a trailing person are appointed (weakly trained tourists, beginners are recommended to go ahead, the strongest one brings up the rear of the group), and they agree on signals while moving.
Participation in a group of novice tourists who have not yet been tested on hikes requires the leader to pay special attention to the pace of movement (if necessary, it can be reduced or increased), ensuring proper rest (sometimes reducing the transition time between rest stops). It is more convenient to walk along forest paths and country roads in single file, maintaining a certain distance and discipline. Unauthorized movement of any of the participants, out of step with the group, can disrupt the schedule of transition along the route, lead to loss of orientation by an undisciplined tourist and, possibly, to injury.
The choice of pace depends on the composition of the group, the distance and nature of the route, as well as the time of year and meteorological conditions. On a weekend hike, the speed of movement of the entire group is commensurate with
the speed of movement of inexperienced tourists. As is customary, the first to overcome obstacles is the leader, who has previously studied them. In steel time, he tells the guide how to walk correctly, in
what tempo and rhythm.
About a quarter of an hour after the start of the hike, it is recommended to make a short stop to adjust the equipment, discuss the order of movement and its pace. In the future, it is best to alternate 45-50 minute hikes with 10-15 minute breaks. On rough terrain you should walk with your knees slightly bent, not until
end straightening the leg at the moment of the push. On the ascents, the leg should be placed on the entire foot, slightly turning the toes to the side, slightly tilting the torso forward. During descents, the leg is first placed on the heel, without bending, and the torso is slightly tilted back. In the first and second cases, the arms are kept bent at the elbows.
OVERCOMING OBSTACLES:
I) Overcoming slopes (ascents, traverses, descents)
1) Grassy slopes
To successfully navigate grassy slopes, you must have appropriate shoes (with protected ankle joints, grooved, non-slip soles) and master some techniques.
When climbing a grassy slope, the foot is placed on the entire foot to increase the grip of the boot on the grass. As the steepness increases, the toes of the feet turn outward when lifting (lifting
"herringbone") When descending, the foot is placed straight with the entire sole, the legs slightly bent at the knees are springy.
During steep ascents and descents, every firmly lying stone, pothole or hummock is used as a step. When moving across a slope or traversing it, the legs are placed with the entire sole across the slope so that the foot internal to the slope is turned slightly up or perpendicular to the slope, and the foot outside is slightly down. Traverse - movement along a slope without dropping or gaining height.
On slopes of 25-30 degrees, long ones ascend and descend in short zigzags, as close to each other as possible. It is necessary to ensure that the upper participants are not above the lower ones. In this position, the latter may be in danger of a rockfall or falling from above the participant. On steep grassy slopes it is recommended to use
Traverse the slope to support an alpenstock, an ice ax, and the ice ax or alpenstock should rest against the slope above your feet.
When descending straight down, the steps should be placed parallel or, with the toes slightly turned to the sides, across the entire foot. If the slope is not very steep, they go down with their backs to it, with their knees slightly bent, in quick short steps. The step should be springy. Steep slope recommended
go down sideways.
On wet grassy slopes, the grooved sole becomes clogged with mud and can easily slip, so special attention is required. Dirt is removed by striking the alpenstock against the welt of the boot.
2) Scree slopes
Movement along scree slopes is associated with the danger of rockfalls. It is easier and safer to move along scree made of compacted or large stones. Signs of compacted stones are a darker surface. Your foot should be placed on a stone closer to the slope. When moving in zigzags, in a tight group, make sure not to end up above or below your comrades. To do this, having passed the zigzag section, you should wait for the passage of your comrades walking below
or higher, in a place safe from rockfall. If the slope is steep, then movement up or down occurs straight along
water fall lines. You need to move as close to each other as possible so that every stone touched can be stopped; until it reached dangerous speed. If the stone could not be stopped or someone saw a stone flying from above, it is necessary to warn the climbers by saying loudly “stone!” You can avoid danger by stepping to the side or hugging a vertical rock ( big stone). From small stones in the open
place you can protect yourself with a backpack.
A) Small scree
Carefully crosses a scree of small stones that slide with each step, stepping on it and testing to see if it is sliding down, or by gradually pressing, they deepen the foot into the chip until the scree stops sliding, after which the main weight of the body is transferred to it. It is very difficult to climb on such scree, as it constantly slides. At the same time, it is easier to go down such scree. When descending, place your feet parallel with an emphasis on the heel.
B) Large scree
Movement along large scree is carried out by stepping from one stone to another, changing the pace in order to maximize the use of the inertia of the body with a backpack and avoiding jumping. When descending and ascending, you need to place your feet on the edges of the stones, closer to the slope. You should not use stones and slabs that have a significant slope, and you should not step on the sharp edges of the stones. If you come across an unstable stone, you must warn those walking behind not to step on them or hold on to them, with the words: “Living stone!”
B) Medium scree
You must walk carefully on loose, medium-sized rocks (“living” scree), avoiding sudden movements, so as not to cause a rockfall. When moving on scree, it is necessary to protect the body from abrasions and cuts with clothing, even if it is warm or hot.
II) River crossings
Methods of overcoming can be divided into two groups: crossings by water (swimming or wading) and crossings using technical means (railings or watercraft). As part of the school of initial tourist training, we will consider the first group.
Water obstacles in simple walking trips, as a rule,
overcome on ready-made bridges and treasures. If they do not have railings and are unstable, then an experienced tourist passes first. He will try out the crossing and organize belay for others using a pole or hand. To better maintain balance, everyone should have a pole.
For fording, sections of the river are selected where the river floods widely, flows in several channels, or the speed of the water flow is reduced. If large stones stick out from the water, you need to go downstream of them, where the impact force of the flow is weakened. It is not recommended to take off your shoes as you may get injured on the bottom or rolling stones. Food and wet items are placed in the upper part of the backpack.
The fording can be done alone with a pole, stick or ice ax. The pole is held with both hands and rests against the bottom against the current. Do not lift your feet from the bottom, move with side steps. If the river depth is higher
knees, then crossing alone is already dangerous. Organize group crossings.
Crossing "wall"
The movement of the “wall” is parallel to the flow of the river. A strong participant is placed first in the flow; he takes the main load. Behind him, everyone else stands in a line with their hands on each other’s shoulders or holding onto the straps of a neighbor’s backpack (no more than 6 people). They move in small incremental steps. The first one to come out is the one that went downstream.
Roundabout crossing.
Those crossing, holding their shoulders tightly, form a circle and move in a clockwise or counterclockwise rotation. Crossing in a column. The group lines up on the bank along the river in a column. The strongest participant lines up in front with a pole in his hands. The less powerful members of the group stand in the middle. Tourists with both hands
holding on to each other. The first participant enters the water facing the current, and the rest line up behind him. The column moves with side steps. On the opposite bank, the last participant comes out of the water first.
Crossing on a log.
When crossing a log, you can use a pole for insurance, which is placed upstream, or an experienced tourist enters the water and helps everyone else cross. The crossing is possible on a calm river and for those who know how to swim well. Convenient places for it are deep areas with a gentle slope of the riverbed. Counting in advance for drift down the river, tourists swim at an angle to the current. You should not try to cross the obstacle in the shortest straight line. It is recommended to put your things on a light raft and push it through the water in front of you.

III) Overcoming rubble and thickets
They move through forest thickets in a compact group at intervals that ensure safety. Everyone must carefully monitor the person in front and repeat his successful movements. Hold the branches so that they do not hit the person walking behind you. To keep distance. Do not jump over fallen trees, do not step on them, but carefully
step over. This is necessary to avoid injury, since the wood may be slippery (dampness, moss, fungi) or rotten. To protect against twigs and branches, use clothing with long lengths.
sleeves. When overcoming rubble, do not attach (hang) things to your backpack so that they do not cling to branches and impede movement.
IV) Overcoming wetlands
Swamps. Difficult areas with swamps, lakes, and streams are also found in dense forests. This area is called wooded-swampy. Lakes, rivers and streams in such areas usually have swampy banks and muddy bottoms, making these areas difficult to pass.
The passability of swamps is usually determined by external signs. Thus, moss bogs have areas with a continuous cover and a thick layer of decomposed dead moss or moss. The outskirts of the moss bogs are muddier than the middle. The impassability of a swamp can be determined by the growth of reeds and cotton grass. Areas of the swamp overgrown with dense bushes, willow, spruce, alder, usually fireboxes. Overgrowth of aspen and birch indicate the weakness of the surface soil of the swamp. Swamps, the surface of which is covered with floating vegetation, are considered impassable. Such swamps are often called quicksands. Free water under the vegetation cover is determined by piercing this cover with a pointed pole. Areas of swamps covered with pine forests are almost universally passable. In places where ant and mole hummocks are observed, there is less moisture, which indicates that the area is passable. Dense grass interspersed with sedge is a sign that the swamp is passable in dry season. Treeless swamps with sparse bushes on which brown white moss grows are usually swampy and impassable. Main features
The permeability of the swamp is as follows.
The swamp can be passed through if it is covered with thick grasses mixed with sedge; pine trees are visible in the swamp; The swamp is covered with a continuous growth of moss.
A swamp is difficult to pass if there are puddles of stagnant water among the moss; cotton grass grows in the swamp - a grass on which heads of fluff remain after flowering; the swamp is overgrown with dense bushes, willow, alder,
birch, spruce. The swamp is almost impossible to pass if it is covered with reeds; a cover of grass floats across the swamp.
At the same time, swampy forests and meadow swamps are less dangerous than swamps formed as a result of overgrowing of standing water bodies.
When moving through a swamp, the first participant probes the path at almost every sixth step. As a rule, this pioneer is also tied with a rope up to 30 m long. Shrubs, hummocks, rhizomes are landmarks for a more or less safe choice of path. The intended path of 10-15 m is walked with quick small steps along a moss strip or jumping through the bushes, from hummock to hummock. An interval of 5-7 m between participants is maintained. If a tourist with a pole falls through, he places the pole across and, leaning on it, tries to get out on his own or with the help of a rope. However, it should be remembered that walking around swamps takes less time and effort than moving through them. If you can find a path, then follow it. If there is no path, then move from hummock to hummock. You can also tie pieces of plywood to your boots (prepare in advance, knowing the PVD route). An alternative option: tie up branches, twigs, bark and anything that is suitable to increase the area of ​​​​the feet.
Features of overcoming obstacles in winter.
In winter conditions, overcoming some natural obstacles becomes noticeably easier - rivers, lakes, swamps freeze, but in winter it is harder to travel. This is primarily caused by the effect of low temperatures on the human body.
In winter PVD, a person is exposed to continuous and fairly long-term exposure to cold. Successfully overcoming difficulties in winter depends primarily on a person’s resistance to cold, which is determined not so much by general physical health as by skills, habits and preparedness of the nervous system. Naturally, frost resistance largely depends on having good clothing. It is also necessary to have a change of clothes so as not to overheat during hiking or skiing trips and not to freeze during stops.
V) Movement during a ski trip
On a ski trip, the group, no matter what terrain it is on, follows in a column one at a time with an interval of 5-6 m on the plain and 10-15 m on the slopes.
Before descending, you must carefully inspect the slope and choose the safest and gentlest direction. To speed up the movement of a large group in difficult places (on descents, ascents, when crossing streams,
ditches), you should overcome them in several places at once. The most experienced tourist lays a ski track, others replace him seasoned travelers. The frequency of guide replacement is determined by local
conditions and forces of the skiers themselves. The leader tries to ensure that the ski track runs along areas that are convenient for movement.
in some places, it was as straight as possible, and had no sharp turns. On descents, do not get close to trees, rocks and other obstacles. In the forest, on level ground, you need to choose fairly convenient wide passages between the trees and break off dry branches that can damage the eyes of those walking behind.
When moving through lakes and streams, you must go down onto the ice very carefully, because... its edge near the shore may not hold up and break. On lakes, places where rivers flow (or flow out) are also dangerous,
streams, open space lakes, swamps, one must try to cross with maximum speed with a minimum of stops. It is worth noting that a fairly experienced participant is appointed to close the ski tourist group, who has at his disposal a repair tool and a first aid kit for timely assistance (at the same time, he stops the entire group).
VI) Movement on snowfields
When driving in the snow, you need to follow the following basic rules:
. On a soft snowy slope, you should gradually press the step support, avoiding a strong kick in the snow. This helps save steps that could collapse from a sharp impact and saves energy.
. If the crust is fragile and cannot withstand the weight of a person, there is no need to try to stay on its surface. It is better to break through the crust with a sharp blow, and then press the sole to compact the step under it.
. Sometimes you can stay on a steep crusty slope by resting your sole on the edge of a step cut into the crust, and your shin on the crust, thus distributing your body weight over a large surface of the snow.
. It is necessary to observe the principle of vertical body position, especially if the steps are not reliable.
. The length of the leader’s step should not exceed the length of the step of the smallest (usually a woman) member of the group.
. All group members must follow each other, without knocking down the steps and taking care of their safety and, if necessary, correcting damage.
. The one who goes first does the hard work, so he must be replaced periodically. This is also dictated by considerations of general safety, since a tired person is more likely to make a mistake in choosing the path.
In loose snow, they try to walk almost without bending their knees, absorbing each step due to the falling snow. In harder snow on the descent, the tracks are made by hitting the heel. In order to maintain balance, you need to rely on an ice ax. On smooth snowy slopes without rocks or ice outcrops, it is possible to descend by sliding on the soles of your boots, leaning on the slope with an ice ax (alpenstock, ski stick) - the so-called planing. The position during planing is reminiscent of a skier's stance when descending: the legs are bent at the knees, one half a foot in front, part of the weight is transferred to the ice ax, which is in the hands and scratches with a bayonet along the slope behind or to the side of the climber. The planer must not lose control of the speed and direction of movement. You can’t decide to slide down unfamiliar slopes if you can’t see the end of the descent

Non-explosive barriers include anti-tank ditches, gouges, scarps, counter-scarps, wire fences and nets, snow banks, rubble in forests and populated areas, landslides in the mountains, barriers, barricades, lanes on rivers and reservoirs, ice on roads, icing of banks and slopes , as well as water and electrified barriers.

Anti-tank ditches, scarps and counter-scarps tanks, armored personnel carriers and artillery overcome the enemy over bridges or passages .

Transitions They are set up using tanks with BTUs, track-laying machines (bulldozers), and engineering vehicles to clear barriers by filling the barriers with soil.

For devices transition through the anti-tank ditch explosively must be undermined four charges of 25 kg each , laid on the ground surface, or four charges of 6-8 kg each , installed into the ground to a depth of 1 m.

Rice. Making a passage in an anti-tank ditch using an explosive method:

a - charges placed on the surface of the soil; b - charges installed in the ground to a depth of 1 m;/ - charges of 25 kg; 2 - charges of 6-8 kg

Passages in the gouges are doing explosion of concentrated charges . The charge mass for each groove, depending on the material from which it is made, can be: from rail - 0.5-1 kg; from channel, I-beam - 3-5 kg; from pipes - 5-10 kg; from logs - 0.5-1 kg; made of reinforced concrete - 3-5 kg.

To do passage in the forest rubble appoint a team consisting of at least a squad, reinforced with a tank with a BTU, a BAT track-laying vehicle or an engineering clearing vehicle, as well as two or three chainsaws.

The passage is made by moving fallen trees to the sides from its axis. The department is divided into two calculations. One of them, consisting of 3 people, conducts reconnaissance and mine clearance, and the second clears and marks the passage.

To speed up the clearing of the rubble and the destruction of mines installed in it, it is necessary to sequentially, every 6-8 m, carry out explosions of concentrated (20-25 kg each) or elongated charges with a linear mass of 6-8 kg/m and a length of 6 m, placed on fallen trees or under them. The width of the passage in the obstruction for one-way traffic must be at least 4 m.

Clearing rubble in populated areas produced mainly by bulldozers or tracklayers. The width of the passage for one-way traffic is at least 4 m. When clearing streets in destroyed locality It is impossible to allow dilapidated buildings that are in danger of collapse to remain near the passage being made. Such buildings are brought down by explosive or mechanical means.

The rubble is being cleared moving debris of buildings forming a blockage beyond the intended passage . Large fragments are pre-crushed by explosions of overhead charges of 2-5 kg. If the rubble is deep, they are not cleared. The surface of the rubble in the strip of the intended passage is leveled and entrance and exit ramps are arranged. In the same way, they overcome the rubble of fallen rock on mountain roads.

To overcome barriers in the forest and barricades, passages are made in them by undermining and pulling away logs. The fragments of beams, stones and soil are moved by a bulldozer to the sides from the axis of the passage.

When clearing rubble and destruction in an area with radioactive or chemical contamination of the area, personnel perform tasks wearing personal protective equipment. The commander determines the length of stay of personnel in the contaminated area in order to prevent radiation doses above established standards.

Passages in wire fences done with tanks (except for subtle obstacles), explosively and manually using scissors or an entrenching tool.

To make passages in wire fences using an explosive method, elongated charges are used. Their length is no less than the width of the fence. The charges are placed under the wire near the stakes or on the wire and exploded. As a result of the explosion of an elongated charge with a linear mass of 4-6 kg/m, a passage 4-5 m wide is formed in the barrier.

Wire barriers can also be overcome by creating crossings by throwing mats of branches or straw, boards, poles, ladders and overcoats onto the wire.

In inconspicuous and portable wire barriers, passages are made by pulling apart the barriers in separate links using cats and hooks attached with cables to tanks, tractors, etc.

Electrified wire fences discover
units of engineering troops equipped with special instruments; in the absence of such units, these barriers are detected as follows:

By external signs - the presence of porcelain insulators, rubber and other insulating materials on the stakes; by the sparks visible at night, jumping from the wire onto the grass in contact with it; by the presence of burnt grass;

Throwing (from a safe distance) a piece of wire over the fence so that one end touches the fence and the other the ground; in this case, sparks and smoke appear at the end of the wire touching the ground when the soil or grass cover is wet;

Using a telephone set included in a cable located at right angles to the fence and connecting two ground electrodes: one no closer than 3 m, the other 50-200 m from the fence; If there is current in the fence, a buzzing sound is heard in the phone.

Electrified barriers are overcome along passages or by de-energizing them and then overcoming them like ordinary wire barriers.

The personnel of the engineering troops units making passages must wear protective equipment selected depending on the power supply circuits of the electrified barriers. The passages are made by cutting wire with special scissors, pulling the wire away with tanks (tractors) and by explosive means.

The width of passages in electrified barriers should be 2-3 m greater than in non-electrified ones.